, 


I 


: 

* 

*-'         4- 


THE    PROFESSION 


OF 


HOME  MAKING 


A  CONDENSED  HOME-STUDY  COURSE 

ON     DOMESTIC     SCIENCE;     THE     PRACTICAL    APPLICATION     OF     THE 

MOST   RECENT   ADVANCES   IN    THE    ARTS   AND    SCIENCES 

TO    THE    HOME    INDUSTRIES 

PEEPAEED  BY  TEACHEBS  OF 
EECOGNIZED  AUTHOEITY 


FOR    HOME-MAKEKS,    MOTHERS,    TEACHERS,    PHYSICIANS,    NURSES, 

DIETITIANS,    PROFESSIONAL    HOME    MANAGERS,    AND    ALL 

INTERESTED   IN    HOME,   HEALTH   AND   ECONOMY 


CHICAGO 

AMERICAN  SCHOOL  OF  HOME  ECONOMICS 
1911 


CONTENTS  * 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

BY    MARGARET    E.    DODD,    S.     1'.. 

Graduate    of   Massachusetts    Institute    of   Technology 

Pago 

WATER 0 

THE  ATMOSPHERE         .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .  22 

COMBUSTION      .        .        .        .        .        .      '  .        .  .28 

FUELS            .        .        .        •        .        .        ...        .  31 

FOOD  AS  FUEL  ...        .        .        .        .        .        .37 

SUGARS  AND  STARCHES           .        .        .        .        .        .        .  40 

DIGESTION  OF  SUGAR  AND  STARCH     .         .         .         .        .         .  43 

CHEMISTRY  OF  COOKING         .         .         .         .         .         .        *  4"> 

FATS  AS  FOOD          ,        •        •  .      •        •        -        •        •        .  fil 

NITROGENOUS  FOODS               .         .         .        .         .        .      .  .    ;  .">:; 

EFFECTS  OF  COOKING        .         .        •  '"."«         .         .         .50 

MINERAL  MATTER  IN  FOOD <;i 

DECAY <;•_' 

TEST    QUESTIONS 64 

CLEANING <:7 

CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  LAUNDRY        .         .         .         .                 •,  7s 

REMOVAL  OF  STAINS 87 

BLEACHING             94 

CLEANING  WOODWORK <»s 

CLEANING  METALS Of» 

TEST  QUESTIONS 10.". 

CHEMISTRY  OF  BAKING  POWDER     ......  lor. 

CHEMISTRY  OF  LIGHTING 10* 

CHEMISTRY  AND  ELECTRICITY ILM 

CHEMISTRY  OF  PLANT  LIFE      .         .         .     •    .         .         .         .  HM 

THE  HOUSEKEEPERS'  LABORATORY          .         .        .         .         .  IL'H 

TEST  QUESTIONS I.1!!* 

NOTES  ON  LAUNDRY  WORK             141 

HOME  SOAP  MAKING 14:» 

DISHWASHING 14:» 

BREAD  MAKING          .                  1  ."">'> 

HOME  MADE  BAKING  POWDKR i.v; 

COMPOSITION  OF  GAS ir.x 

SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION             ......  ifio 

BIBLIOGRAPHY l<>:; 

PROGRAM  OF  CLASS  STUDY             ]»;;, 

*  Note :    For  payc  number  sec  foot  of  pages, 

4 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKEBY 

B*   AXXA    BARROWS 
Teacher  of  Cookery,  Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University 

Page 

FIEE    IN    COOKING 177 

WATER   IN   COOKING 102 

I*}-   AND   ICE  CHESTS 204 

PBEPABATIOX  AXD  PRESERVING  OF  FOODS       ....  208 

riioio;  OK   FOOD L'l." 

MILK  AXD  ITS  PBODI:CTS .  218 

COOKING  OF  UUTTER  .         .         .          .         .     '     .         .         .  224 

TOOK  i  NO  OF  CHKESE       .         ,         .         ...         .         .         .  229 

QUESTIONS       . 231 

TOOK  I  NO    OF    F.GGS  ........  235 

COOKING  OF  MEAT,  FISH,  AND  POII.TRY  ....  247 

COOKING  OF  VEGETABLES        .......  263 

rooKiNG  OF  CHAINS 274 

TEST    QUESTIONS  ........  278 

UREAD  AXD  OTHEK  I>oi  <;jis       .  281 

PASTRY  AND  CAKE .'  2^0 

BOOKING   OF    l)->\  GHS         ...  .  ,  .  .  .  .  301 

FORM   OF  SCKVIXG 304 

FLAVOR 312 

FOOD  FOB  A  DAY  315 

P>IBLIOGBAPHY 322— 

TEST  QUESTIONS  ........  323 

fo.Mj-ABATiVE  VALFF  or  Fi  i.i.s 325 

FIREI.ESS  COOKERS 330 

CO-OPERATIVE  COOKING 330 

KlTfHEN    Al'I'LIANf'ES  337 

THE  IIoi:sEKEEi'ER's  LIBRARY 340 

CABD  CATALOG  OF  FOODS 342 

COOKERY  A  FINE  ART 343 

CAKE  MAKING 345 

MENU   MAKING ,  346 

ECONOMY  ix  THE  USE  OF  FATS 356 

MEXUS  For:  SPECIAL  OCCASIONS 358 

PROGRAM   FOR  CLASS  STUDY  ....  359  — 


*  Note  :     For  paye  number  gee  foot  of  pages. 


FREE  HAND  COOKING  Page 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES           . 367 

EFFECT  OF  HEAT  ox  FOOD  MATERIALS           .         ..       .         .  309 

TEMPERATURE  AND  TIME  OF  COOKING       .         .                  .         .  370 

THICKENING  AND  LEAVENING  AGENTS     .         ...         .  373 

SHORTENING ...         .  374 

FLAVORING            " .   '     .         .         .         ...         .         ,  375 

FUNDAMENTAL    RECIPES 376-400 

HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

BY  BERTHA  M.  TERR  ILL,  M.  A. 
Professor  of  Home  Economics,  University  of  Vermont 

J  HOUSEKEEPING  A  PROFESSION             .         .••'.-        .        V         .  405 

DIVISION  OF  HOME  EXPENDITURES         .         .         .         .         .  400 

RENT           .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  421 

OPERATING  EXPENSES             .         .         .         ...         .  426 

FOOD  EXPENSES         .        -V       ..         .         .         ,'       .         .         .  430 

CLOTHING  EXPENSES               .         .         .         .                  .         .  436 

HIGHER   LIFE             .         .         . 437 

HOUSEHOLD  ACCOUNTS           .         .         .         .         .         .         .  442 

BANK  ACCOUNT  AND  BANKING           .         .         .         .         .         .  400 

TEST  QUESTIONS             .         .         .         .         .         .         .         ,  449 

/THE  ORGANIZATION  AND  DIVISION  OF  LABOR       . /     .         .         .  473 

DOMESTIC  SERVICE         ...         .         .         .         .         .  4*7T) 

BUYING  SUPPLIES .         .         .  499 

KITCHEN  AND  LAUNDRY  FURNISHINGS             .         .         .         .  504 

TABLE  AND  BEJ>  LINEN       .         ...         .         .        ..         .516 

CARPETS  AND  RUGS        .         ...         .         .         .         .  522 

TEST  QUESTIONS        .         .         .                  ,         .    .  ....         .         .  525 

MARKETING  —  CUTS  OF  MEAT         . 527 

POULTRY             .         .         .         .       '.         .         .         .         .-       .  5.>1 

FIS'H      .         .         .         ...         .         .         .  ' "'    .  ,      .  5")3 

VEGETABLES       .         .         .:    "    .         .         .         ,         .         .         .  556 

BUTTER,  MILK  AND  EGGS       .         .  ^      .         .         .         .         .  559 

DRY  GROCERIES         .  •               .       ".         .       ,. .  '  \  .         .         .  561 

BIBLIOGRAPHY        .         .         .         .         .        .  .       *^                .  56^ 

TEST  QUESTIONS       .         .          "       .         .         .         .         .         .  564 

PROGRAMS  FOR  CLASS  STUDY         .         .         .         .         .         .  5J6 

COST  OF  HOME  AND  STEAM  LAUNDRY  WORK       ....  570 

EXPERIENCE  IN  DIVISION  OF  INCOME               ....  571 

FOOD  ECONOMY 577 

THE  DOMESTIC  SERVICE   PROBLEM         .....  583 

HELP  BY  THE  HOUR 586 

SYSTEMS  OF  HOUSE  WORK               .         .         .         .         .         .  5!H) 

VALUE  OF  THE  INDIVIDUAL  HOME       .....          .  592 


*  Note  :     For  page  number  see  foot  of  pages. 
6 


HOME  CARE  FOR  THE  SICK 

BY  AMY  E.  POPE 

Teacher  of  Nursing,   Presbyterian   Hospital 
New  York  City 

Pa<?e 

SYMPTOMS  OF  DISEASE       ........  504 

CHOICE,  FURNISHING,  AND  CARE  OF  THE  SICK-ROOM     .         .  601 

CARE  OF  PATIENT;  MAKING  AND  CHANGING  BED       .         .         .  605 

LIFTING  AND  HANDLING  THE  PATIENT  :  612 

CONVALESCENCE          .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .621 

CARE  OF  THE  HAIR,  MOUTH,  TEETH 624 

BATHS  AND  BATHING         ........  626 

SICK-ROOM   METHODS     ........  633 

THE  GIVING  OF  MEDICINE         .......  640 

PURGATIVE,  ENEMATA,  DOUCHES    ......  646 

POULTICES  AND  FOMENTATIONS         ......  651 

TEST  QUESTIONS  ........  655 

CONTAGION  ;  NURSING  IN  CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES       .         .         .  657 

DISINFECTION  OF  THE  ROOM,  CONTENTS,  ETC.       .         .         .  664 

PRECAUTION  ix  CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES       .....  666 

SURGICAL  OPERATIONS  AT  HOME 667 

OBSTETRICS        . 674 

CARE  OF  THE  CHILD       ........  685 

FOOD  FOR  THE  SICK  —  RECIPES        ......  687 

EMERGENCIES  ;  FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED  .         .         .  <>96 

FOREIGN  BODIES  IN  EYE,  EAR,  NOSE,  THROAT  .         .         .  706 

POISONS  AND  ANTIDOTES       .         .         .         .         .         .  '       .  707 

BANDAGES  AND  BANDAGING         .......  708 

TEST  QUESTIONS 716 

PROGRAM  FOR  CLASS  STUDY .  718~ 

INDEX    .  .  721-736 


Note  :     For  patje  number  see  foot  of  pages. 


right  living   should   be  the   fourth  "Rft  in   edu- 
caton. 

AT  home  -  making    should   be    regarded    as    a    pro- 
fession. 

'TPHAT  health  is  the  duty  and  business  of  the  individual; 
•*•    illness  of  the  physician. 

'T^HAT  most  illness  results  from  carelessness,  ignorance,  or 
intemperance  of  some  kind. 

'  I  AHAT  as  many  lives  are  cut  short  by  unhealthful  food  and 
•*•    diet  as  through  strong  drink. 

HpHAT  on  the  home  foundation  is  built  all  that  is  good 
in  state  or  individual. 

npHAT  the  upbringing  of  children    demands  more  study 
•*•    than  the  raising  of  chickens. 

HpHAT  the   spending   of   money   is   as   important   as   the 
**•    earning  of  the  money. 


economy  does  not  mean  spending  a  small  amount, 
but  in  getting  the  largest  returns  for  the  money  expended. 

HPHAT  the  home-maker  should  be  as  alert  to  make  pro- 
gress   in  her   life-work   as   the   business   or   professional 


man. 


HpHAT  the  most  profitable,  the  most  interesting  study  for 
•*•    women  is  the  home,  for  in  it  center  all  the  issues  of 
life. 

*1pHAT  the  study  of  home  problems  may  be  made  of  no 
*•    less  cultural  value  than  the  study  of  art  for  literature  and 
*}f  much  more  immediate  value. 

— American  School  of  Home  Economics 


CHEMISTRY  OF   THE    HOUSEHOLD 

A  Day's  Chemistry 


BEING  an  outline  of  llie  simplest  and  most  evi- 
dent   chemical    changes    suggested    by    a    day's 
work  at  home  and  a  description  of  the  various  chemical 
substances  of  interest  to  the  housewife. 

WATER 

The  morning  bath  will  introduce  us  agreeably  to  the 
wonderful  chemical  substance,  water,  and  with  this 
substance  we  will  begin  our  study  of  a  day's  chemistry. 
The  water  for  the  house  may  come  from  the  town  sup- 
ply, from  wells,  cisterns,  or  springs.  It  may  be 
"surface  water,"  from  pond,  lake,  or  stream,  or  it  may 
be  "ground  water,"  from  wells  or  deep  springs.  Cis- 
tern water  is,  of  course,  rain  water.  Water  is  present 
in  many  substances  where  we  might  not  suspect  it 
All  living  things  contain  a  large  percentage  of  water. 
Of  an  athlete  weighing  150  pounds,  all  but  about  42 
pounds  is  water.  Wood,  meat,  vegetables,  fruit,  when 
dried,  weigh  from  50  to  98  per  cent  less.  Many  natural 
and  artificial  substances  owe  their  crystalline  form  to 

Copyright,  1904,  1905,  1907,  1910,  by  Home  Economic  Association. 


2  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

water  and  when  heated,  give  off  this  "water  of  crystal- 
lization" and  crumble  to  powder.  Common  washing 
soda  shows  this  effect,  when  exposed  to  the  air,  and 
soon  gives  off  so  much  water  that  its  crystalline  char- 
acter is  lost. 

Natural  All  water  found  in  nature  is  more  or  less  impure, 
Water  that  is,  it  contains  substances  in  solution.  It  dissolves 
air  and  takes  substances  from  the  soil  and  rocks  over 
which  it  runs.  Often  it  comes  in  contact  with  animal 
and  vegetable  substances  and  dissolves  something  from 
them.  Near  dwellings  the  water  in  streams,  ponds, 
and  wells  is  very  likely  to  become  contaminated.  De- 
caying substances  give  rise  to  materials  easily  dissolved 
in  water,  which  may  travel  for  a  considerable  distance 
under  ground,  so  that  the  drainage  from  the  house  or 
barn  is  frequently  carried  to  near-by  streams  or  wells, 
making  their  waters  quite  unfit  to  drink.  Fig.  I. 

The  following  experiment  will  illustrate  that  air  is 
dissolved  in  water. 

Experiment.  Place  a  tumbler  of  fresh  well-water  or 
tap-water  in  a  warm  place.  After  a  time,  bubbles  will 
be  seen  collecting  on  the  sides  of  the  glass.  This  is 
air  which  was  dissolved  in  the  water.  As  the  water 
grows  warm,  it  cannot  hold  so  much  air  in  solution  and 
some  of  it  separates. 

Distilled  Most  of  the  impurities  in  water  are  less  easily  con- 
verted into  vapor  than  the  water  itself;  hence,  when 
the  water  is  boiled,  they  stay  behind  while  the  water 
"boils  away".  Water  from  almost  any  source  can  be 
made  pure  and  clear  by  distillation.  Distilled  water  is 


10 


WATER.  3 

prepared  in  an  apparatus  known  as  a  still.  See  Fig.  2. 
A  still  consists  of  a  boiler,  A,  and  a  condenser.  In 
the  condenser,  a  coil  of  tube,  D,  usually  made  of  pure 


FIG.    1.     WELL,    CONTAMINATED    BY    HOUSE    DRA1NAGP.. 

tin,  is  surrounded  by  cold  water  which  continually 
runs  through  the  apparatus.  The  steam,  admitted  at 
the  upper  end  of  the  coil,  is  condensed  by  the  low  tem- 
perature and  distilled  water  is  collected  at  the  lower 


11 


Rain 

Water 


4  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

end.  In  the  laboratory,  distilled  water  is  often  made 
in  the  glass  apparatus  shown  in  Fig.  3. 

Distilled  water  has  a  flat  taste,  because  air  and  other 
dissolved  substances  which  give  water  its  taste  have 
been  removed.  It  will  again  dissolve  the  air  on  being 
poured  several  times  from  one  vessel  into  another. 

Rain  is  water  which  has  been  evaporated  from  the 
surfaces  of  natural  bodies  of  water,  oceans,  lakes, 
and  from  the  land,  and  is  practically  free  from  mineral 
matter,  but  contains  dissolved  gases. 

The  vapor,  cooled  at  the  low  temperatures  of  the 
upper  levels  of  air,  falls  as  rain.  The  first  fall  of  any 


FIG.    2.     A    STILL. 
A,   Gooseneck;    B,    Boiler;    D,    Condensing  Coil. 

shower  is  mixed  with  impurities  which  have  been 
washed  from  the  air.  Among  these  may  be  carbon 
dioxide,  ammonia,  and  carbon  in  the  form  of  soot  and 
creosote.  It  is  these  last  impurities  which  cause  the 


12 


WATER.  5 

almost  indelible  stain  left  when  ram  water  stands  upon 
window-sills  or  other  finished  woods. 


Fig.    3.     Making    Distilled   Water   In   the    Laboratory. 

Water  is  a  nearly  universal  solvent.  It  dissolves 
more  substances  and  these  in  larger  quantities  than  any 
other  liquid.  At  a  given  temperature,  water  will  dis- 
solve only  a  certain  proportion  of  the  various  salts 
and  other  soluble  substances.  When  the  water  will 
take  up  no  more,  the  solution  is  said  to  be  saturated. 
Increasing  the  temperature  generally  increases  the  dis- 
solving power  of  water  for  solids  and  liquids.  The 
reverse  is  usually  true  for  gases. 

When  a  saturated  solution  of  a  solid  is  cooled,  crys- 
tals are  frequently  formed,  many  having  beautiful 
shapes.  Examples  are  shown  in  Fig.  4. 

Experiment.  In  an  earthen- ware  or  enameled  dish 
dissolve  as  much  alum  as  possible  in  a  little  boiling 
water.  Pour  the  solution  into  a  shallow  dish  or  sau- 


Solubility 


13 


6  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

cer,  and  set  it  away  for  a  day  or  more  where  it  will  be 
undisturbed.  Beautiful,  clear,  six-sided  crystals  wil) 
form  in  the  dish.  If  strings  are  hung  in  the  solution, the 
crystals  will  form  upon  them.  Rock  candy  crystals 
are  made  from  cane  sugar  syrup  in  this  way. 

The  experiment    may  be  repeated,  using  washing 
soda  instead  of  alum. 


Effect  of 
Water  on 

Metals 


FIG.   4.     SHAPES  OF  CRYSTALS. 

Silver,  copper,  and  tin  are  not  perceptibly  dissolved 
in  pure  water,  but  when  combined  with  acid  substances, 
the  compounds  formed  are  soluble.  These  compounds 
of  a  metal  with  an  acid  are  called  salts.  The  salts  of 
copper,  zinc,  and  lead  are  poisonous.  Copper,  brass, 
(an  alloy  of  copper  with  zinc)  tin,  solder,  and  iron 
are  metals  easily  affected  by  acids,  so  that  cooking 
utensils  made  of  these  materials  should  not  be  used 
with  acid  substances  like  lemon  and  vinegar. 


14 


WATER. 


Lead  pipes  are  much  used  in  plumbing,  and  as  a 
rule  no  evil  results  follow,  since  ordinary  drinking 
water  acts  under  most  circumstances  only  very  slight- 
ly upon  lead.  The  pipes  are  soon  coated  with  a  layer 
of  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  lead,  which  is  insoluble 
and  prevents  any  further  action.  Water  from  new 
lead  pipes,  or  pipes  not  kept  constantly  full,  or  from 
a  hot-water  system  in  which  lead  is  used,  should  never 
be  used  for  drinking  or  cooking  because  of  danger 
from  poisoning.  Pure  distilled  water,  or  rain  water, 
affects  lead  more  than  ordinary  ground  water. 

Rain  water  absorbs  more  or  less  carbon  dioxide  gas 
from  the  air  and  soaking  into  the  soil  often  comes  in 
contact  with  magnesia  in  the  rocks  and  with  limestone. 
Water      containing      this 
gas    will    dissolve    these 
mineral   substances   mak- 
ing   what    is    known    as 
"hard"  water,  a  very  dif- 
ferent substance  from  the 
original    rain    water 
which     is     "soft."     This 
subject      will      be      dis- 
cussed   when    the    chem- 
istry   of    the    laundry    is 
explained. 

Ordinary  water  for  drinking  purposes  is  often  filtered. 
Filtration  will  remove  small  particles  suspended  in  the 
water,  but  has  no  effect  on  substances  dissolved  in  it. 

The  small  charcoal  or  sand  filters  will  not  remove 


Effect   of 
Water 
on   Lead 


Hard 
Water 


Water 

Layer  of  gravel 



Layer  <f  charcoal 

Layer  of  gravel 

Filtered  watev 

FIG.    5.     A    WATER    FILTER. 


Filtering 


15 


8  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

the   minute   living   forms   called   micro-organisms   or 
germs,  some  of  which  are  the  cause  of  disease.     A  fill, 
of  porous  stone  or  procelain,  in  which  the  water  nit 
slowly,  is  more  effective.    A  good  filter  is  shown/*!- 
Figure  5. 

Water  which  has  strained  or  filtered  through  se^' 
feet  of  earth  is  often  much  improved,  but  the  e 
filter  itself  may  become  contaminated  after  a  whil<^  a 
more  harm  than  good  result.    A  thick  layer  of 
and  rock,  however,  removes  germs  effectively,  and  co-, 
sequently  water  from  deep  driven  wells  is   .afe. 
composition          Water  was  long  considered  an  elementary  or  sin 
substance,  but  towards  the  end  of  the  last  century 
was  found  to  consist  of  two  quite  different  substara. 
so  intimately  joined  together  that  the  identity  of  each 
is  lost.     If  we  pass  an  electric  current  through  wat< 
in  the  proper  way,  we  see  a  gas  rising  in  bubbles  frr 
the  end  of  the  wire  by  which  the  current  enters  a 
like  appearance  at  the  wire  by  which  the  current  leaves 
the  water.     The  two  gases  have  evidently  c<         ^om 
the  water  and  are  the  substances  out  of  ^ 
made  for  the  water  begins  to  disappear.     By  plac. 
inverted  glass  filled  with  water  over  each  wir/y 
gases   are   easily  collected.     See   Fig.   6.     Wherre 
bottle  is  full  of  gas,  the  other  will  be  only  half  fuii^ 
on  decomposing  the  whole  of  a  given  amount  of  ;/.rateo 
this  proportion  holds  true.  ..  .orf 

If  we  test  these  gases,  we  shall  find  them  qp'i.e  d) 
ferent.     The  bottle  which  is  full  contains  a  gad  called 

•_.  vftr 


16 


WATER. ,  9 

hydrogen.  There  is  evidently  twice  as  much  of  this  by 

'time  in  water  as  of  the  other  gas  which  is  called 

ox/gen.     These  two  gases  were  tied  together  by  what 

-nown  as  chemical  force,  but  the  electric  current 

rated  them  and  gave  us  an  opportunity  to  make 

:quaintance  of  each  by  itself.     We  would  hardly 

nse  this  clear,  colorless  liquid  to  be  composed  of 

material.     On  decomposing  pure  water  from  any 


HYDROGEN 


T.   6.     Decomposing   Water  Into  Oxygen  and  Hy- 
drogen Gas. 


the  proportion  of  oxygen  to  hydrogen  is  always 
Ae,  and  in  fact,  all  chemical  compounds  have  a 
composition  which  never  varies  under  any  con- 

name  hydrogen  comes  from  two  Greek  words, 
.water  and  to  produce.     Hydrogen  is  interest- 
ing as  oeing  the  lightest  common  substance.     It  is  an 
Hsible  gas  like  air,  but  unlike  air  will  burn.     If  a 


Hydrogem 


17 


10 


CHEMISTRY. OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 


lighted  candle  be  placed  in  a  bottle  of  hydrogen,  the 
flame  will  be  at  once  extinguished,  though  the  hydro- 
gen will  take  fire  at  the  mouth  of  the  bottle.  Fig.  7. 
Hydrogen  will  unite  with  other  substances  besides 
oxygen ;  that  is,  it  will  join  with  other  substances  by 
chemical  force.  It  forms  a  part  of  most  animal  and 
vegetable  substances. 


Fig.    1. 


Hydrogen  Will  Burn 
in  Air. 


Fif.  8.  A  Candle 
Burns  Vigorously  in 
Oxygen. 

oxygen  Oxygen,  as  well  as  hydrogen,  is  a  tasteless,  color- 
less, odorless  gas.  The  weight  of  a  given  volume  is 
sixteen  times  that  of  the  same  volume  of  hydrogen. 
It  is  very  abundant  and  the  most  important  substance 
to  mankind.  Should  we  test  this  gas  with  a  lighted 
candle,  as  we  did  the  hydrogen,  we  would  find  that 
the  oxygen  would  not  give  a  flame,  but  that  the  candle 
would  burn  far  more  vigorously.  Fig.  8. 


18 


WATER.  ii 

When  substances  burn  in  oxygen  they  really  unite 
jvith  it  chemically,  forming  new  substances  called 
oxides.  Water  is  hydrogen  united  with  oxygen  and  its 
chemical  name  might  therefore  be  oxide  of  hydrogen. 

When  water  is  heated  in  an  open  vessel,  evapora-  Effect  of 
tion  from  the  surface  of  the  liquid  is  more  rapid  as  wate?* 
the  temperature  increases.  Soon  vapor  is  formed  on 
the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  vessel  and  bubbles  begin  to 
rise  which  are  at  once  condensed  by  the  cooler  parts 
of  the  liquid,  thus  making  the  familiar  "singing"  noise. 
Finally  the  liquid  becomes  so  hot  that  the  bubbles  reach 
the  surface  without  condensing,  and  then  the  water 
boils  and  goes  off  into  the  air  as  steam,  an  invisible 
gas.  This  occupies  the  small  space  between  the  spout 
of  the  tea-kettle  and  the  cloud  of  vapor  which  is  com- 
monly called  steam,  but  is  really  finely  divided  drops 
of  water.  A  cubic  inch  of  water  makes  about  a  cubic 
foot  of  steam. 

The  temperature  at  which  pure  water  begins  to  boil  Boiling 
at  sea  level  is  212°  Fahrenheit  (or  100°  Centigrade) 
and  this  temperature  remains  the  same  while  the  boil- 
ing continues.  Increasing  the  heat  simply  increases 
the  violence  of  the  boiling.  The  steam  given  off  is  of 
the  same  temperature  as  the  boiling  liquid.  Most  pure 
liquids  have  a  definite  boiling  point;  ether  boils  at 
100°  F,  alcohol  at  173°  F,  turpentine  at  315°  F. 

When  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  surface 
of  the  liquid  is  less  than  at  the  sea  level,  as  on  a  moun- 
tain, where  there  is  not  so  much  air  above  pressing 
down  on  the  surface  of  the  liquid,  the  temperature  of 


19 


12  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

boiling  is  less.*  For  example,  the  boiling  point  of  water 
in  Denver,  Colorado,  is  about  202°  F,  and  on  the  top 
of  some  of  the  mountains  in  the  Himalayas,  180°  F. 
People  living  in  high  mountain  regions  have  difficulty 
in  cooking  with  water  or  steam. 

Increasing  the  pressure  on  the  surface  of  the  liquid, 
on  the  other  hand,  raises  the  boiling  point.  This  is 
seen  when  water  boils  in  a  confined  space,  as  in  a  steam 
boiler.  Under  five  pounds  pressure  of  steam,  water 
boils  at  about  227°  F  and  at  100  pounds  pressure,  at 
337°  F. 

An  increase  in  the  boiling  point  of  water  is  caused 
by  dissolved  substances.  A  very  strong  solution  of 
common  salt  boils  at  about  226°  F,  and  a  solution  of 
sugar — syrup  or  molasses — boils  at  an  increasing  tem- 
perature as  the  water  is  lost. 

The  temperature  at  which  a  syrup  boils,  is  a  meas- 
ure of  its  thickness  or  density.  In  many  modern  cook- 
ery books  temperature  tests  are  given  for  boiling  sugar 
in  making  confections,  which  vary  from  215°  for 
a  thin  syrup,  up  to  350°  for  caramel.  In  making  maple 
sugar  a  "sugar  thermometer"  is  often  placed  in  the 
boiling  syrup.  At  a  given  temperature,  which  is  high- 
er for  sugar  cakes  than  for  soft  sugar,  the  proper  con- 
centration is  reached. 

latent  Considerable  heat  is  absorbed  by  the  process  of  boil- 
ing. It  requires  966  times  as  much  heat  to  change  a 
pound  of  water  at  the  boiling  point  into  steam  as  it 
does  to  raise  it  one  degree  Fahrenheit.  The  heat 


20 


WATER.  13 

which  is  used  to  change  the  state  of  the  water  without 
changing  its  temperature  is  called  latent  heat  from  the 
Latin  word,  meaning  hidden.  The  ."hidden  heat"  is 
given  out  again  when  the  steam  is  condensed.  This 
same  quantity  of  heat  is  absorbed  when  the  water 
evaporates  slowly ;  hence  the  great  cooling  effect  of 
large  bodies  of  water. 

When  water  is  cooled  it  shrinks  slightly  until  the 
temperature  of  39°  F  is  reached.  On  further  cool- 
ing it  to  the  freezing  point,  32°  F  (or  o°  Centigrade) 
it  increases  in  volume,  so  that  ice  takes  up  more  space 
than  the  same  weight  of  water  and  consequently  floats. 
If  this  were  not  so,  lakes  and  streams  would  freeze 
solid  in  winter  and  it  is  doubtful  if  they  would  melt 
completely  during  the  summer  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  United  States. 

To  melt  ice,  144  times  as  much  heat  is  required  to 
change  the  ice  at  32°  F  into  water  at  32°  F,  as  to  raise 
the  temperature  of  the  same  quantity  of  water  one 
degree  Fahrenheit.  This  is  the  latent  heat  of  melting 
and  the  same  amount  of  heat  is  given  out  when  water 
freezes.  Water  thus  serves  as  the  great  temperature 
regulator  for  the  earth,  for  by  evaporating,  much  of 
the  heat  of  summer  is  absorbed,  and  before  freezing, 
a  great  deal  of  heat  must  be  given  out  and  absorbed. 

Water  has  a  much  greater  capacity  of  absorbing  heat 
than  any  other  common  substance.  For  example,  one 
pound  of  water  will  absorb  ten  times  as  much  heat  in 
being  raised  one  degree  as  a  pound  of  iron.  The  great- 


Freezing 


Heat 
Absorption 


21 


14  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

er  absorbing  capacity  of  water  for  heat  explains  why  a 
kettle  of  fat  heats  up  so  much  faster  than  the  same 
weight  of  water  under  like  conditions ;  for  the  fat  re- 
quires only  one-third  as  much  heat  to  raise  it,  say,  to 
200°  F,  a$  does  the  water. 

THE  ATMOSPHERE 

When  we  leave  the  sleeping  room,  we  open  the  win- 
dows  to  admit  air.     We  may  with   advantage  treat 

.    ,  our  lungs  to  an  air  bath  by  standing  at  the  open  win- 

dow or  by  going  out  of  doors  for  a  few  minutes  to  take 
in  five  or  ten  deep  breaths.  Next,  perhaps,  we  shall 
use  drafts  of  air  to  help  us  make  a  fire  in  the  range 
or  in  a  fire  place. 

Air  as  .a  Air  is  a  real  substance.  It  can  be  weighed.  The  air 
in  a  room  15  feet  by  20  feet  by  10  feet  high  weighs 
210  pounds,  and  would  fill  ten  ordinary  water  pails 
if  liquified.  Air  will  expand  and  may  be  compressed 
like  other  gases  and  it  has  been  liquefied  by  intense  cold 
and  pressure.  It  requires  considerable  force  to  move 
it.  When  a  bottle  is  full  of  air,  no  more  can  be  poured 
in.  Our  houses  are  full  of  air  all  the  time.  It  pervades 
all  things — the  cells  and  tissues  of  our  bodies  are  full 
of  air. 

Wood  and  some  metals  even  contain  a  little.  In 
breathing  we  take  a  little  from  the  room,  but  it  is  im- 
mediately replaced  by  expired  air,  which  is  impure. 
Were  there  no  exits  for  this  air,  no  pure  air  could  enter 
the  house,  and  we  should  die  of  slow  suffocation.  The 


22 


THE  ATMOSPHERE.  15 

better  built  the  house  the  quicker  the  suffocation.  Fortu- 
nately no  house  is  air  tight.  Air  does  pass  out  through 
the  walls  and  cracks,  and  comes  in  around  doors  and 
windows,  but  unless  there  is  a  great  difference  in  the 
temperature  indoors  and  out,  this  fresh  air  is  neither 
sufficient  to  replace  the  bad  air  nor  to  dilute  it  beyond 
harm.  Therefore  in  ordinary  weather,  the  air  of  all 
rooms  must  be  often  and  completely  changed  either  by 
special  systems  of  ventilation  or  by  intelligent  action 
in  the  opening  of  doors  and  windows. 

The  atmosphere  surrounds  the  earth  to  a  depth  of 
fifty  miles  or  more.  The  effect  of  gravity  of  the  earth 
on  this  mass  is  to  produce  a  pressure  or  weight  of  air 
on  all  things.  This  pressure  is  about  fifteen  pounds  on 
each  square  inch,  but  we  do  not  notice  it,  for  the  pres- 
sure is  the  same  on  all  sides  of  us  and  the  internal 
pressure  in  the  cells  of  our  bodies  balances  the  external 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 

If  it  were  not  for  the  pressure  of  the  air,  we  could 
not  drink  lemonade  through  a  straw  or  pump  a  pail  of 
water.  When  we  exhaust  part  of  the  air  by  suction, 
we  remove  part  of  the  pressure  over  the  liquid  in  the 
straw  and  the  air  pressure  on  the  surface  in  the  glass 
forces  the  liquid  up  the  straw.  The  same  principle 
applies  in  a  pump — the  air  is  partially  taken  off  the  top 
of  the  water  in  the  pipe,  and  then  the  pressure  outside 
forces  the  water  up  in  the  pipe  and  by  a  proper  valve 
arrangement,  it  is  made  to  run  into  the  pail.  See 
Fig.  9. 


16 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 


Composition 
of   Air 


Fitrogen 


The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  at  the  sea  level  is 
sufficient  to  force  water  up  into  a  vacuum  about  34 
feet  vertically;  but  owing  to  mechanical  imperfections 
of  pumps,  the  practical  limit  is  27  or  28  feet  rise  be- 
tween the  surface  of  the  water  and  the  valve  of  the 
pump.  It  is  customary  to  use  a  force  pump  if  water 
is  to  be  raised  to  a  height  above  this.  Fig.  10. 

Unlike  water,  air  is  not  the  result  of  a  chemical  union 
of  two  unlike  simple  gases.  Nevertheless,  air  contains 
more  than  one  substance.  It  is  made  up  chiefly  of  two 
gases  simply  mixed  together,  and  each  exhibits  its 
own  characteristics  to  some  extent. 

Pure  air  consists  of  oxygen,  which  we  have  found 
constitutes  one-third  of  water,  and  of  nitrogen  (and 
argon).  The  oxygen  forms  about  a  fifth  and  the 
nitrogen  four-fifths  of  the  air.  Besides  these,  several 
other  gases  are  found  in  small  but  varying  quantities. 

To  the  oxygen  gas  is  due  the  power  of  air  to  support 
combustion  (fire)  and  life.  Oxygen  unites  chemically 
with  most  other  substances,  and  were  the  air  all  oxy- 
gen, the  combustible  part  of  the.  earth  would  soon  be 
consumed  by  its  own  fires.  Fortunately  four-fifths  of 
the  air  is  a  gas  that  has  little  power  of  combination  and 
this  nitrogen  serves  to  dilute  the  oxygen  and  to  weaken 
its  force,  much  as  water  would  dilute  and  weaken  a 
strong  and  powerful  chemical. 

The  most  marked  characteristic  of  nitrogen  is  its 
sluggishness  or  inertness.  Nitrogen,  like  oxygen,  is 
a  tasteless,  odorless,  colorless  gas.  It  is  fourteen 


24 


THE  ATMOSPHERE. 


times  as  heavy  as  hydrogen.  Though  nitrogen  from 
the  air  unites  with  other  elements  with  difficulty,  it 
is  found  in  all  living  tissues,  both  animal  and  vegetable, 
and  when  these  decompose  the  familiar  substance,  am- 
monia, is  formed.  This  is  a  compound  of  hydrogen 
and  nitrogen. 


Fig.     9.     Suction     Pump. 


Fig.     10.     Force    Pump. 


Carbon  dioxide  is  always  present  in  the  atmosphere. 
This  is  one  of  the  countless  combinations  of  carbon, 
the  element  present  in  all  animal  and  vegetable  mate- 
rials. Carbon  is  nearly  pure  in  the  form  of  charcoal. 
Soot,  graphite  or  the  black  lead  of  lead  pencils,  and  the 


Carbon 


25 


i8 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 


Carbon 
Dioxide 


Water 
Vapor 


diamond  are  other  forms.  Carbon  unites  very  readily 
with  oxygen  and  the  gas  formed  by  their  chemical 
union  is  called  carbon  dioxide  because  it  contains  two 
parts  of  oxygen  to  one  of  carbon.  Wood,  coal,  gas — 
almost  everything  that  will  burn  in  fhe  air — and  even 
our  own  bodies  contain  carbon,  though  we  would  not 
suspect  its  presence  because  it  is  combined  with  other 
substances  and  has  merged  its  own  character  in  those 
of  the  substances  of  which  it  forms  a  part.  All  our 
food  contains  carbon  in  its  combinations. 

When  we  breathe  we  take  into  our  bodies  the  oxy- 
gen of  the  air.  This  oxygen  is  needed  by  the  various 
organs  and  is  carried  in  the  blood  from  the  lungs  to  all 
parts  of  the  body.  During  the  circulation  the  oxygen  is 
taken  up  by  the  cells  and  replaced  by  carbon  dioxide. 
This  is  brought  back  by  the  blood  to  the  lungs  and 
breathed  out.  If  we  remain  long  in  a  closed  room,  a 
portion  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air  in  the  room  and  of  the 
substance  of  our  bodies  is  changed  into  carbon  dioxide, 
which  is  unfit  to  breathe.  This  is  the  reason  for  the 
special  need  of  ventilation  in  the  sleeping  room. 

Water  in  the  form  of  vapor  is  constantly  passing 
off  into  the  air  from  the  surface  of  bodies  of  water, 
from  vegetation,  and  from  animal  organisms,  as  in- 
visible vapor.  The  amount  of  water  vapor  present 
in  the  air  is  very  variable.  Warm  air  will  hold  more 
vapor  than  cold  air.  Ordinarily  on  a  pleasant  day,  the 
atmosphere  holds  between  60  per  cent  and  70  per  cent 
of  the  possible  amount  of  water  vapor. 


26 


THE  ATMOSPHERE.  19 

When  the  air  is  saturated  or  at  the  dew  point,  a      Dew 
slight  lowering  of  the  temperature  causes  the  vapor  to      Point 
condense.     That  air  will  absorb  only  a  certain  amount 
of  moisture  explains  why  a  draft  of  air  is  necessary 
when  drying  clothes  within  doors  and  why  the  wash- 
ing drys  slowly  on  a  damp  day. 

The  presence  of  vapor  in  the  air  is  shown  by  bring- 
ing a  pitcher  of  ice  water  into  a  warm  room.  The  air 
against  the  cold  surface  of  the  pitcher  is  cooled  until 
the  dew  point  is  reached,  when  it  deposits  part  of  its 
moisture.  Any  person  who  wears  glasses  knows  the 
effect  of  such  condensation  in  going  into  a  warm  room 
from  out  of  doors  on  a  cold  day.  That  the  air  exhaled 
contains  water  may  be  shown  by  breathing  upon  any 
bright,  cold  surface. 

The  discomfort  we  feel  in  a  crowded  room  is  largely  HOW  a 
due  to  the  excess  of  moisture  resulting  from  the  produced 
breathing  and  perspiration  of  so  many  persons.  The 
danger  of  going  from  a  crowded  reception  or  "tea" 
into  the  open  air  is  also  due  to  it.  Crowded  rooms 
become  very  warm,  the  air  soon  becomes  saturated 
with  vapor  and  cannot  take  away  the  perspiration  from 
our  bodies.  Our  clothes  thus  become  moist  and  the 
skin  tender.  When  we  go  into  the  colder,  drier  air, 
clothes  and  skin  suddenly  give  up  their  load  of  mois- 
ture. Evaporation  absorbs  heat ;  the  heat  is  taken 
from  our  bodies  and  a  chill  results.  There  is  much 
to  learn  concerning  the  ventilation  of  rooms  for  social 
purposes. 


27 


20  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

Argon  The  a^r  a^so  contains  a  verY  small  amount  of  a  gas 
called  argon.  This  was  discovered  in  1894.  It  resem- 
bles nitrogen  so  closely  that  it  long  escaped  detection. 
Several  other  gases  are  present  in  minute  quantities. 

COMBUSTION 

Very  likely  a  fire,  must  be  built  in  the  cook  stove. 
In  order  that  chemical  combination  may  take  place, 
the  conditions  must  be  right.  The  stove  is  so  con- 
structed that  a  current  of  air  can  pass  from  under  the 
grate  through  the  fire  box,  and  funnel,  to  the  chimney, 
and  we  must  arrange  that  this  air  current  shall  not  be 
unduly  obstructed,  for  fuel  will  not  burn  without 
oxygen. 

Kindling  Substances  differ  greatly  as  to  the  ease  or  difficulty 
with  which  they  may  be  made  to  burn,  or  in  chemical 
terms,  with  which  they  may  be  made  to  unite  with 
oxygen.  The  temperature  to  which  a  substance  must 
be  heated  before  it  will  take  fire  is  called  the  kindling 
point.  We  therefore  place  light  materials,  like  shav- 
ings, pitch-pine  chips,  or  paper  on  the  grate,  twisting 
the  paper  and  arranging  all  in  such  a  way  that  oxygen 
has  free  access  to  a  large  surface ;  upon  this  we  place 
small  sticks  of  wood,  piling  them  across  each  other 
for  the  same  reason,  and  on  this,  in  turn,  hard  wood  or 
coal.  The  large  stick  of  wood  or  the  coal  cannot  be 
kindled  with  a  match,  but  the  paper  or  shavings  can, 
and  these  in  burning  will  heat  the  wood  until  it  takes 
fire  which  then  will  kindle  the  coal. 


28 


COMBUSTION. 


21 


To  kindle  the  fire,  we  unthinkingly  light  a  match. 
The  burning  of  the  match  repeats  the  same  principle 
we  have  described.  The  match  is  made  by  dipping  the 
ends  of  small  sticks  of  wood  into  melted  sulphur,  a 
substance  more  easily  kindled  than  wood.  When  the 
sulphur  is  dried,  the  match  is  tipped  with  a  preparation 
of  phosphorus.  Phosphorus  has  such  a  low  kindling 
temperature  that  friction  of  the  match  against  any 
rough  surface  heats  it  sufficiently  to  set  it  on  fire.  In 
burning,  this  sets  fire  to  the  sulphur  and  this,  in  turn, 
kindles  the  wood.  Paraffine  now  has  replaced  sulphur. 

The  products  (substances  formed)  of  the  burning 
match  are  oxide  of  phosphorus,  oxide  of  sulphur,  and 
carbon  dioxide  and  water  from  the  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen of  the  wood.  As  our  coal  fire  burns,  we  have  two 
different  oxides  of  carbon  formed — carbon  monoxide 
composed  of  one  part  carbon  and  one  part  oxygen, 
and  carbon  dioxide  having  two  parts  oxygen  to  one  of 
carbon.  The  carbon  monoxide  formed  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  fire  rises  through  the  burning  coals,  takes 
up  more  oxygen  at  the  top  of  the  fire  and  forms  carbon 
dioxide.  The  blue  flames  seen  over  a  hard  coal  fire 
are  caused  by  carbon  monoxide  burning.  Carbon 
dioxide  does  not  burn,  since  in  this  form  the  carbon 
holds  as  much  oxygen  as  possible.  The  drafts  and 
dampers  so  regulate  the  supply  of  oxygen  that  the 
fire  may  burn  rapidly  or  slowly  and  that  the  harmful 
products  of  combustion  may  be  carried  out  of  the 
house  by  way  of  the  chimney. 


Chemistry 
of  a  Hatch 


Products  of 

Combustion 


Carbon 
Monoxide 


22 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 


Constant 
Composition 
of  the  Air 


Elements 


It  might  be  thought  that  with  the  millions  of  human 
beings  and  animals  and  countless  fires  constantly  using 
oxygen  and  giving  off  carbon  dioxide,  that  the  atmos- 
phere would  soon  consist  of  a  large  proportion  of  car- 
bon dioxide.  Nature  has  wonderfully  provided  for 
this.  Carbon  dioxide,  which  is  the  waste  matter  of 
animals,  is  one  of  the  foods  of  plants.  Thus  the  trees 
of  the  forest  and  the  shrubs  and  plants  of  the  garden 
are  continually  taking  in  the  carbon  dioxide  and  giv- 
ing out  pure  oxygen,  so  that  the  carbon  dioxide  is 
kept  at  about  three  or  four  parts  in  10,000  of  air. 

As  has  been  said,  wood  consists  mainly  of  the  sub- 
stances, carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen,  to- 
gether with  other  substances  in  small  amounts.  The 
growing  tree  has  taken  these  simple  substances  from 
the  air  and  earth  and  stored  them  up  in  a  complex  form 
as  w©od. 

The  chemist  calls  the  simple  substances  out  of  which 
different  things  are  made,  elements.  Carbon,  oxygen, 
nitrogen,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  silver,  gold,  copper, 
iron,  lead,  tin,  mercury,  zinc,  aluminum  are  the  chemi- 
cal elements  familiar  to  most  people.  When  the  wood 
is  burned,  or  oxidized,  its  elements  are  made  into  new 
combinations,  but  in  the  burning  no  substance  is  de- 
stroyed. Some  of  the  new  products  are  invisible,  it 
is  true,  but  that  they  exist  may  be  proved  in  many 
ways. 

One  of  the  fundamental  laws  of  chemistry  is  the 
Law  of  Conservation  of  Matter  (substance).  This 
may  be  stated  as  follows:  The  weight  of  all  the 


30 


COMBUSTION. 


products  made  in  a  chemical  action  is  exactly  equal  to 
the  weight  of  all  the  substances  used.  That  is,  the 
weight  of  the  dry  wood  plus  the  weight  of  the  oxygen 
required  to  burn  it,  equals  the  combined  weight  of  car- 
bon dioxide,  water,  and  ashes  produced.  Matter  can 
neither  be  destroyed  nor  created  —  it  can  only  be 
changed  or  transformed.  Scientists-  have  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  there  is  just  the  same  amount  of  oxygen,  nit- 
rogen, sulphur,  iron  and  of  all  the  other  elements  in 
the  universe  at  the  present  moment  as  there  was  at  the 
beginning  of  things. 

A  familiar  form  of  nearly  pure  carbon  is  charcoal. 
It  is  made  by  heating  wood  for  a  time  with  a  very 
small  amount  of  air.  The  vola- 
tile parts  of  the  wood  are  driven 
off,  leaving  the  carbon.  The  old 
fashioned  method  of  making 
charcoal  is  shown  in  Fig.  II, 
where  the  burning  of  part  of  the 
wood  gave  the  heat  necessary  for 
the  making  of  the  charcoal.  At  Fig-  "•  Charcoal  Klln- 
the  present  time,  most  charcoal  is  made  by  the  de- 
structive distillation  of  hard  wood  in  iron  stills ;  the 
products  being  charcoal,  crude  wood  alcohol,  crude 
acetic  acid,  together  with  gas  and  wood  tar,  which  last 
are  burned  to  give  the  heat  for  the  process. 

Charcoal  is  a  porous  substance  and  has  the  power  of 
absorbing  into  its  pores  gases  and  even  particles  of 


Conservation 
of   Matter. 


Charcoal 


31 


24  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

coloring  matter.  A  few  pieces  of  charcoal  added  to 
the  water  in  which  flowers  are  standing,  or  plants 
growing,  help  to  keep  the  water  sweet  by  absorbing  the 
impurities.  Boneblack,  a  very  finely  powdered  animal 
charcoal,  is  used  to  decolorize  liquids.  If  it  is  mixed 
with  a  dark  syrup,  for  instance,  and  the  mixture  vio- 
lently shaken,  the  color  will  be  absorbed  and  filtration 
will  give  a  nearly  colorless  syrup. 

Coal  Coal  is  formed  in  almost  every  country  on  the 
earth,  but  the  United  States  has  the  largest  amount. 
It  was  originally  wood  and  other  carbonaceous  mate- 
rial, once  a  part  of  living  organism  at  a  date  of  perhaps 
millions  of  years  ago.  During  these  years,  the  earth's1 
crust  has  been  subjected  to  slow  upheavals  and  depres- 
sions, so  that  in  some  places,  what  was  originally  at 
the  surface  has  been  covered  with  thousands  of  feet  of 
earthy  matter,  or  possibly  by  the  ocean.  Under  enor- 
mous pressure,  the  plants  have  been  subjected  to  heat 
from  the  earth's  interior.  This  is  destructive  distil- 
lation on  the  largest  scale. 

Graphite  In  the  making  of  coal  if  this  distillation  is  com- 
plete, a  substance  called  graphite  is  obtained.  Graphite 
is  the  black  lead  used  in  lead  pencils  and  in  stove  polish. 
It  is  a  shiny,  black  mineral  with  a  slippery  feeling  and 
is  nearly  100  per  cent  carbon.  If  the  distillation  is 
less  complete,  hard  coal,  called  anthracite  containing 
about  90  per  cent  carbon,  results.  If  still  less  per- 
fect, soft  or  bituminous  coal,  having  varying  per- 
centages of  carbon,  is  formed. 


32 


COMBUSTION.  25 

Where  the  process   goes  on  under   water,  peat  is      Peat 
found.     This   is  partially  formed  coal,  but  little  dis- 
tilled and  contains  only  about  40  per  cent  carbon. 

Besides  carbon,  these  substances  are  made  up  of 
gases  composed  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  called  hydro- 
carbons. These  gases  give  the  yellowish  and  orange 
flames  in  a  coal  fire.  Pure  carbon  does  not  burn  with 
flame — it  merely  glows.  Anthracite  coal  contains 
only  from  3  to  4  per  cent  of  volatile  matter,  but  bi- 
tuminous coal  may  have  30  to  40  per  cent  of  these 
hydro-carbon  gases. 

Coke  is  made  by  the  destructive  distillation  of  soft  coke 
coal.  Like  charcoal,  it  is  chiefly  carbon,  but  contains 
more  mineral  matter  (ash).  The  coke  obtained  as  a 
bi-product  in  the  manufacture  of  coal  gas  is  rather  soft, 
but  when  coke  is  made  as  the  principal  product,  it  is 
hard  and  brittle.  Coke  makes  a  very  hot  fire  without 
flame,  but  does  not  last  as  well  as  hard  coal.  The  ash 
should  be  allowed  to  accumulate  in  the  grate  when 
burning  it.  Many  consider  it  an  improvement  over 
soft  coal  for  household  use  and  it  might  be  used  to 
advantage  more  than  it  is. 

Graphite  is  so  hard  and  compact  that  it  cannot  be 
burned.  Anthracite  ignites  with  some  difficulty  and 
then  burns  slowly  with  intense  heat. 

Bituminous  coal  ignites  readily  and  burns  well  when      coking 
there  is  sufficient  draft.     The  "coking"  variety  cakes 
over  on  top  and  the  fire  must  be  broken  up  to  allow 
the  air  to  penetrate  the  fire.     Soft  coal  should  be  put 
on  the  fire  in  small  amounts  as  otherwise  the  hydro- 


33 


26 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 


carbon  gases  escape  unburned  and  thus  much  heat 
value  is  lost.  Smoke  is  made  up  of  finely  divided 
particles  of  carbon  and  is  always  an  indication  of  in- 
complete combustion  and,  therefore,  loss. 


Fig.   12.     Burner  of  a   Blue  Flame  Oil  Stove. 

Oil  from  tank  (not  shown)  is  forced  up  O,  Is  vaporized  in  passing 
through  the  straight  tube,  mixes  with  air  at  A,  .and  burns  with  a  blue 
flame  at  the  top. 

Kerosene  and  gasoline  are  also  important  fuels.  Gas 
will  be  taken  up  under  the  subject  of  light.  Petroleum 
is  an  oily  liquid  found  in  many  places  in  large  quanti- 
ties, particularly  in  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio.  It  is 
made  up  almost  entirely  of  compounds  of  carbon  and 
hydrogen  ( hydro-carbons  ) . 

When  the  crude  petroleum  from  the  Pennsylvania 
district  is  purified  by  distillation  and  other  processes, 
the  main  product  is  kerosene.  The  lighter  and  more 
volatile  products  are  gasoline,  naphtha,  and  benzine 
— all  three  having  much  the  same  composition.  Gaso- 
line is  the  most  volatile.  Among  the  heavier  products 
are  various  lubricating  oils,  vaseline,  and  paraffin. 

In  order  to  burn,  kerosene  must  be  vaporized.  In 
the  new  blue  flame  oil  stoves,  various  devices  are  em- 


34 


COMBUSTION.  27 

ployed  to  vaporize  the  oil.  In  Fig.  12  the  oil  passes 
through  a  tube  heated  by  the  flame,  where  it  is  changed 
to  vapor  which  is  mixed  automatically  with  air  and  is 
then  burned.  Sometimes  an  alcohol  flame  is  used  to 
start  this  process,  but  the  flame  of  the  burning  oil 
itself  continues  it.  A  slight  pressure  of  air  is  main- 
tained in  the  oil  reservoir  to  give  a  constant  small  jet 
of  oil  to  be  vaporized.  In  other  styles  of  stoves,  the 
oil  is  fed  automatically  by  gravity  to  a  hollow  ring, 
when  it  becomes  heated  to  the  point  that  it  gives  vapor. 
The  vapor  mixes  with  air  and  burns  with  a  blue  flame. 
Fig.  13. 


Fig.  13. 


Blue  Flame  Oil  Stove,  Showing  Oil  Reservoir  and  Light- 
ing  Ring. 


Gasoline  is  burned  on  much  the  same  principle  as 
kerosene.  It  vaporizes  much  more  easily  and  the  pres- 
sure for  the  flow  of  the  gasoline  is  furnished  usually 
by  having  the  tank  a  few  feet  above  the  burner. 


Gaioline 


35 


28  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

The  measure  of  safety  of  kerosene  is  the  temperature 
at  which  it  will  give  off  an  inflammable  gas.  This 
is  called  the  -flash  point  and  is  determined  by  heating 
the  oil  slowly  and  observing  the  temperature  at  which 
a  flash  can  be  produced  by  applying  a  lighted  taper 
to  the  surface  of  the  oil.  Below  the  flash  point,  there 
is  no  danger  of  explosion  from  oil.  Most  states  in  the 
United  States  have  a  legal  flash  point,  or  a  fire  test, 
below  which  standard  kerosene  cannot  be  sold.  The 
flash  point  of  good  kerosene  is  120°  F.  The  fire  test 
is  the  temperature  at  which  the  oil  will  take  fire  and 
burn  when  a  light  is  applied.  This  is  about  30°  F 
higher  than  the  flash  point.  The  ordinary  tempera- 
ture of  the  room  is  above  the  flash  point  of  gasoline, 
naphtha,  benzine,  etc.  In  other  words,  these  sub- 
stances are  constantly  giving  out  an  inflammable  vapor. 
Fuel  A  comparison  of  the  heating  value  of  the  various 
fuels  will  be  of  interest.  Practical  tests  of  the  amount 
of  steam  produced  in  a  steam  boiler  have  shown  that 
one  cord  of  ordinary  wood  is  approximately  equal  to 
one-half  ton  of  coal ;  a  gallon  of  oil  (or  gasoline)  is 
equal  to  about  twelve  pounds  of  coal;  1,000  cubic  feet 
of  coal  gas  is  equal  to  50  or  60  pounds  of  coal,  or  about 
four  and  one-half  gallons  of  oil.  Hard  coal  has  a 
little  higher  fuel  value  than  soft  coal,  because  the  com- 
bustion is  commonly  more  perfect.  Coke  is  -nearly 
equal  to  hard  coal  by  weight,  but  is  much  more  bulky. 
It  is  usually  sold  by  measure.  A  bushel  of  coke 
weighs  40  pounds,  of  anthracite  67  pounds,  and  of  soft 


36 


POOD.  29 

coal  76  pounds.  Damp  wood  is  a  much  poorer  fuel 
than  dry  wood,  because  so  much  heat  is  absorbed  and 
wasted  in  changing  the  water  into  steam. 

The  heat  given  off  by  a  fuel  is  not  the  only  point  to 
be  considered.  In  the  cook  stove,  but  a  small  portion 
of  the  heat  given  off  by  the  solid  fuel  can  be  used  for 
cooking,  as  most  of  it  is  radiated  into  the  room  or 
carried  up  the  chimney.  In  the  gas  or  oil  stove,  the 
flame  may  be  applied  exactly  where  it  is  wanted,  so 
that  the  proportion  of  heat  which  can  be  used  is  much 
greater.  Moreover,  the  flame  can  be  shut  off  instantly 
when  wanted  no  longer  and  all  expense  stopped.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  range  usually  serves  to  heat  the 
water  of  the  hot  water  system,  incinerate  garbage,  and 
in  winter  helps  to  heat  the  house. 

FOOD 

Having  the  fire  well  under  way  the  housekeeper 
turns  her  attention  to  the  breakfast.  A  great  variety 
of  chemical  actions  may  here  be  considered.  In  the 
first  place,  why  must  we  -"eat  to  live  ?" 

Wherever  there  is  life,  there  is  chemical  change; 
and  as  a  rule  a  certain  degree  of  heat  is  necessary 
in  order  that  chemical  charlge  may  occur.  Vegetation 
does  not  begin  in  the  colder  climates  until  the  air  be- 
comes warmed  by  the  heat  of  the  spring.  When  the 
cold  of  winter  comes  upon  the  land  vegetation  ceases. 

Since  many*  animals  live  in  temperatures  in  which 
plants  would  die,  it  is  evident  that  they  must  have  some 


37 


Combustion 
in   the  Body 


Vital 
Temperature 


Air   as 

Food 


3o  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

source  of  heat  in  themselves.  This  is  found  in  the 
union  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air  breathed  with  car- 
bonaceous matter  eaten  as  food  and  the  formation  of 
carbon  dioxide  and  water,  just  as  in  the  combustion  of 
wood  or  coal.  Only  instead  of  this  union  taking  place 
in  one  spot  and  so  rapidly  as  to  be  accompanied  by 
light,  as  in  the  case  of  fire,  it  takes  place  slowly  and 
continuously  in  each  living  cell.  Nevertheless,  the 
chemical  reaction  seems  to  be  identical. 

The  heat  of  the  human  body  must  be  maintained  at 
98.5°  F — the  vital  temperature — the  temperature  neces- 
sary for  the  best  performance  of  the  normal  functions. 
Any  continued  variation  from  this  degree  of  heat  in- 
dicates disease.  Especially  important  is  it  that  there 
be  no  considerable  lowering  of  this  temperature,  for  a 
fall  of  one  degree  is  dangerous,  since  in  that  case  the 
chemical  changes  necessary  to  the  body  cannot  be  car- 
ried out. 

The  slow  combustion  or  oxidation  of  the  carbon 
and  hydrogen  of  food  cannot  take  place  without  an 
abundance  of  oxygen ;  hence  the  diet  of  the  animal  must 
include  fresh  air — a  point  not  always  considered. 

The  amount  of  oxygen  taken  in  by  the  body  daily  is 
equal  to  the  sum  of  all  the  other  food  elements. 

Except  water,  two-thirds  of  these  foods  consists  of 
some  form  of  starch  or  sugar — the  socalled  carbohy- 
drates, in  which  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  are  found  in 
the  same  proportion  as  in  water. 

The  power  to  do  mechanical  work  comes  from  the 


38 


FOOD.  31 

combustion  of  fuel.  The  body  is  a  living  machine 
capable  of  doing  work,  raising  weights,  pulling  loads, 
and  the  like.  The  animal  body  also  requires  fuel  in 
order  to  do  such  work  as  thinking,  talking,  even  wor- 
rying. For  the  present,  then,  we  will  say  that  food  is 
necessary,  (i)  to  preserve  the  vital  temperature  and 
(2)  to  enable  the  body-machine  to  do  its  work. 

Suppose  we  begin  our  breakfast  with  fruit,  say,  an 
orange  or  a  banana.  Fruits  are  especially  rich  in 
sugars  and  these  are  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen.  If  sugar  is  placed  upon  a  stove,  it  will 
melt  and  steam  (water)  will  pass  off  into  the  air, 
leaving  the  black  charcoal  (carbon)  on  the  stove. 
Moreover,  sugars  burn  easily  and  fiercely.  We  shall 
get  both  heat  and  energy  from  our  fruit.  Within  the 
body  it  will  be  changed  into  water  and  carbon  dioxide- 
Fruits  contain  a  large  percentage  of  water;  but  the 
banana  is  capable  of  giving  more  energy  and  heat  'than 
the  orange,  because  it  has  much  less  water  and  more 
sugar.  Fruit  loses  in  drying  a  large  portion  of  its 
water,  so  that  dried  fruits  contain  a  larger  percentage 
of  food  materials  than  fresh  fruits.  For  instance, 
raisins  are  60  per  cent  grape  sugar. 

Fruits  consist  of  a  loose  net-work  of  a  woody  ma- 
terial holding  the  soft  pulp  and  this  woody  fibre,  called 
cellulose,  is  practically  indigestible.  Cooking  softens 
this,  making  cooked  fruits  easier  to  digest. 


The  Body 
a  Machine 


Fruit 


Cellules* 


39 


32  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

SUGARS  AND   STARCHES. 

At  breakfast  some  sugar  from  the  sugar  bowl  may 
be  added  to  the  fruit.  Many  people  add  sugar  to  the 
oatmeal  or  other  cereal  eaten,  although  it  is  often  held 
by  teachers  of  dietetics  that  this  is  not  a  good  place  to 
use  it,  for  proper  cooking  and  thorough  mastication  of 
the  cereal  will  bring  out  a  rich  sweetness  due  to  changes 
explained  later.  Country  boys  know  how  sweet  a 
morsel  is  made  by  chewing  raw  grains,  especially 
wheat.  Possibly  a  glass  of  milk  is  taken  at  breakfast 
and  this  contains  another  kind  of  sugar — milk  sugar — 
in  about  5  per  cent.  Coffee  and  tea  are  usually  sweet- 
ened, so  that  a  considerable  part  of  the  breakfast  may 
be  of  this  class  of  foods — a  quickly  burning  material 
giving  heat  and  energy. 

cane  There  are  several  different  sugars  recognized  by 
chemists ;  these  are  cane  sugar  or  sucrose,  grape  sugar 
or  glucose,  milk  sugar  or  lactose,  and  fruit  sugar  or 
levulose.  Cane  sugar  is  obtained  from  the  juices  of 
many  plants,  notably  sugar  beets,  sugar  cane,  the 
palm,  and  as  maple  sugar  from  the  rock-maple  trees. 
Molasses  and  brown  sugar  are  obtained  during  the 
manufacture  of  white  sugar  from  sugar  cane.  Cane 
sugar  is  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen 
in  the  proportion  of  twelve  parts  of  carbon  to  eleven 
parts  of  water.  When  sugar  is  heated  it  is  chemically 
changed,  more  or  less,  according  to  the  degree  of  heat 
and  the  rapidity  with  which  it  parts  with  its  water. 


40 


SUGARS  AND  STARCHES.  33 

Heating  it  gradually,  we  obtain  first  straw  colored 
barley  sugar,  then  brown  caramel,-  and  finally  black 
carbon. 

Grape  sugar  is  found  in  honey  and  in  all  ripe  fruits.  Grape 
It  consists  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  in  some- 
what different  proportions  from  what  they  occur  in 
cane  sugar.  It  appears  on  the  outside  of  dried  fruits, 
such  as  raisins.  It  is  only  two-fifths  as  sweet  as  cane 
sugar.  Large  quantities  are  manufactured  from  corn 
starch. 

Milk  sugar  is  similar  to  cane  sugar  in  composition.      Milk 
It  is   obtained   from  the   whey  of   milk.     It   is   hard      Sugar 
and  gritty  and  not  very  sweet  to  taste.     When  milk 
sours,  it  is  because  this  sugar  is  fermented  and  changed 
into  lactic  acid.     The  acid  causes  the  milk  to  curdle. 

Fruit  sugar  or  levulose  occurs  with  glucose  (grape  Fruit 
sugar)  in  fruits.  It  is  about  as  sweet  as  cane  sugar  Sugar 
but  it  does  not  crystallize. 

A  marked  characteristic  of  all  sugars  is  their  solu- 
bility and  all  but  the  last  are  crystalline  substances, 
that  is,  will  form  crystals. 

At  breakfast  bread,  toast,  or  some  cereal  like  oat-      starch 
meal   or   wheat,    usually    follows    the    fruit    course.* 
These   foods   are  prepared  from  grains    (seeds)    and 
contain  much  nutriment  in  a  condensed  form.     They 
supply   the   body  with   starch   and   some   nitrogenous 
food.     But  the  body  cannot  use  starch  as  such.     It 
must  be  changed  into  a  form  of  sugar  called  starch 
sugar,  or  maltose.     While  we  are  following  Mr.  Glad- 


41 


34 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 


Source 
of    Starch 


stone's  rule  and  chewing  each  mouthful  of  our  toast 
twenty-five  times,  we  will  consider  what  starch  is  like 
and  how  it  is  made  available  for  use. 

Starch  is  found  in  greater  or  less  abundance  in  all 
plants  and  is  laid  up  in  large  quantities  in  the  seeds  of 
many  species.  See  Fig.  14.  Rice  is  nearly  pure 
starch;  wheat  and  the  other  cereals  contain  sixty  to 
seventy  per  cent  of  it.  Some  tubers,  such  as  potatoes, 
contain  it  although  in  less  quantity — ten  to  twenty  per 
cent. 

It  is  formed  by  means 
of   the   living   plant-cell 
and  the  sun's  rays,  from 
^      the   carbon  dioxide  and 
water   contained   in   the 


Fig.     14.     Starch    Much    Magnified 
a,    Potato   Starch;    b,  Corn   Starch. 


air  and  it  is  the  end  of 
the  plant  -  life  —  the 
stored  energy  of  the 
summer.  It  is  prepared 
and  stored  by  the  parent 
for  the  food  for  the  young  plant  until  the  latter  can 

start  its  own  starch  factories. 
• 

Starch  in  its  common  forms  is  insoluble  in  water.   It 

dissolves  partially  in  boiling  water,  forming  a  trans 
parent  jelly  when  cooled,  as  every  housekeeper  knows. 
The  cellulose  which  occurs  in   various  forms  in  the 
shells  and  skins  of  fruits,  in  their  membraneous  parti- 
tions, and  in  cell  walls,  is  an  allied  substance. 


42 


SUGARS  AND  STARCHES. 


DIGESTION 


35 


Digestion  is  primarily  synonymous  with  solution. 
All  solid  food  materials  must  become  practically  solu- 
ble before  they  can  pass  through  the  walls  of  the  di- 
gestive system.  Starch  and  like  materials  must  be 
transformed  into  soluble  substances  before  absorption 
can  take  place.  Cane-sugar,  though  soluble,  has  to 
undergo  chemical  change  before  it  can  be  absorbed. 
By  these  changes  it  is  converted  into  grape  and  fruit 
sugars.  These  and  milk  sugar  are  taken  directly  or 
with  little  change  into  the  circulation.  To  this  fact  is 
due  a  large  part  of  the  great  nutritive  value  of  the 
dried  fruits,  as  raisins,  dates,  and  figs,  and  the  advan- 
tage of  milk-sugar  over  cane-sugar  for  children  or  in- 
valids. 

Under  certain  conditions — weakened  digestive  power 
or  excess  of  sugar — cane-sugar  may  remain  so  long 
in  the  stomach  before  the  change  takes  place  that  fer- 
mentation sets  in  and  a  "sour  stomach"  results.  This 
is  one  of  the  dangers  of  too  much  candy. 

The  chemical  transformations  of  starch  and  sugar 
have  been  very  carefully  and  scientifically  studied  with 
reference  to  brewing  and  wine-making.  Several  of 
the  operations  concerned  necessitate  great  precision  in 
respect  to  temperature  and  length  of  time,  and  these 
operations  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  the  process 
of  bread-making  by  means  of  yeast. 

There  are  two  distinct  means  known  to  the  chemist 
by  which  starch  is  changed  to  sugar.  One  is  by  the 


Digestion 
of  Starch 


Starch 
Conversion 


43 


Ferments 


Conversion 
in  the  Body 


36  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

use  of  acid  and  heat,  which  changes  the  starch  into 
sugar,  but  can  go  no  farther.  The  other  is  by  the  use 
of  a  class  of  substances  called  ferments,  some  of  which 
have  the  power  of  changing  starch  into  sugar,  and 
others  of  changing  the  sugar  into  alcohol  and  carbon 
dioxide.  These  ferments  are  very  important  in  all 
vegetable  and  animal  life.  Some  are  formed  by  small 
plants  like  yeast,  which  is  often  present  in  the  air. 


Among  the  well  known  ferments  is  one  formed  in 
sprouting  grain,  which  is  called  diastase  or  starch  con- 
verter, and  under  the  influence  of  warmth,  changes  the 
starch  into  a  sugar.  The  starch  first 
takes  up  water;  then  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  ferment,  is  changed 
into  maltose,  a  form  of  sugar 
which  is  easily  soluble  in  water.  A 
similar  process  is  carried  on  in  the 
preparation  of  the  malted  foods  on 
the  market. 

The  same  cycle  of  chemical  changes  goes  on  in  the 
human  body  when  starchy  substances  are  taken  as 
food.  Such  food  is  moistened  with  saliva  and  warmed 
in  the  mouth,  becoming  well  mixed  through  mastica- 
tion. It  thereby  becomes  impregnated  with  ptyalin, 
a  ferment  in  the  saliva,  which  can  change  starch  into 
sugar,  as  can  the  diastase  of  the  malt.  The  mass  then 
passes  into  the  stomach  and  the  change,  once  begun, 
goes  on.  In  the  intestines  the  sugar  formed  is  absorbed, 
into  the  circulatory  system  and  by  the  life  proc- 


Fig-.  15. 

Yeast  Highly 

Magnified. 


44 


COOKING..  37 

esses,  is  oxidized,  that  is,  united  with  more  oxygen 
and  changed  finally  into  carbon  dioxide  and  water, 
from  which  it  was  made  by  the  help  of  plant  life  and 
sun  light. 

No  starch  is  utilized  in  the  human  system  as  starch.  Digestion 
It  must  undergo  transformation  before  it  can  be  ab- 
sorbed. Therefore,  starchy  foods  must  not  be  given  to 
children  before  the  secretion  of  the  starch  converting 
ferments  has  begun,  nor  to  any  one  in  any  disease 
where  the  normal  action  of  the  glands  secreting  these 
ferments  is  interrupted.  Whatever  starch  passes  out 
of  the  stomach  unchanged,  meets  with  a  very  active 
converter  in  the  intestinal  juice.  If  grains  of  starch 
escape  these  two  agents,  they  leave  the  system  in  the 
same  form  as  that  in  which  they  entered  it. 

COOKING 

Early  man,  probably,  lived  much  like  the  beasts, 
taking  his  food  in  a  raw  state.  Civilized  man  requires 
much  of  the  raw  material  to  be  changed  by  the  action 
of  heat  into  substances  more  palatable  and  already 
partly  digested. 

The  chemistry  of  cooking  the  raw  materials  is  very      cooking 
simple.     It  is  in  the  mixing  of  incongruous  materials 
in  one  dish  or  one  meal  that  complications  arise. 

The  cooking  of  starch,  as  rice,  farina,  etc.,  requires 
little  explanation.  The  starch  grains  are  prepared  by 
the  plant  to  keep  during  a  season  of  cold  or  drought 
and  are  very  close  and  compact;  they  need  to  be 


38  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

swollen  and  distended  by  moisture  in  order  that  the 
chemical  change  may  take  place  readily.  Starch  grains 
may  increase  to  twenty-five  times  their  bulk  by  absorb- 
ing water. 

The  cooking  of  the  potato  and  other  starch-contain- 
ing vegetables,  although  largely  a  physical  or  mechani- 
cal process  is  very  necessary  as  a  preparation  for  the 
chemical  actions  of  digestion ;  for  raw  starch  has  been 
shown  to  require  a  far  longer  time  and  more  digestive 
power  than  cooked  starch.  Change  takes  place  slowly, 
even  with  thorough  mastication,  unless  the  starch  is 
swollen  and  heated,  and,  in  case  the  intestinal  secre- 
tion is  disturbed,  the  starch  may  not  become  converted 
at  all. 

Bread  Our  breakfast  will  undoubtedly  contain  bread. 
Bread  of  some  kind  has  been  used  by  mankind  from 
the  first  dawn  of  civilization.  During  the  earlier 
stages  it  consisted  chiefly  of  powdered  meal  and  water 
baked  in  the  sun  or  on  hot  stones.  This  kind  of  bread 
had  the  same  characteristics  as  the  modern  sea-biscuit, 
crackers,  and  hoe  cakes,  as  far  as  digestibility  was 
concerned.  It  had  great  density;  it  was  difficult  to 
masticate ;  and  the  starch  in  it  presented  but  little 
more  surface  to  the  digestive  fluids  than  that  in  the 
hard  compact  grain,  the  seed  of  the  plant. 

Experience  must  have  taught  the  semi-civilized  man 
that  a  light  porous  loaf  was  more  digestible  than  a 
dense  one.  Probably  some  dough  was  accidentally  left 
exposed;  yeast  plants  settled  upon  it  from  the  air; 


46 


COOKING.  39 

fermentation  set  in,  and  the  possibility  of  porous  bread 
was  thus  suggested. 

A  light,  spongy,  crisp  bread  with  a  sweet,  pleasant      ideal 
taste,    is    not   only    aesthetically   but   chemically   con-  d  . 

sidered  the  best  form  in  which  starch -can  be  presented 
to  the  digestive  organs.  The  porous  condition  is  de- 
sired in  order  that  as  large  a  surface  as  possible  may 
be  presented  to  the  action  of  the  chemical  converter, 
the  ptyalin  of  the  saliva,  and  later  to  other  digestive 
ferments.  There  is  also  better  aeration  during  the 
process  of  mastication. 

Very  early  in  the  history  of  the  human  race,  leavened  Leaven 
bread  seems  to  have  been  used.  This  was  made  by 
allowing  flour  and  water  to  stand  in  a  warm  place  until 
fermentation  had  well  set  in.  A  portion  of  this  dough 
was  used  to  start  the  process  anew  in  fresh  portions  of 
flour  and  water.  This  kind  of  bread  had  to  be  made 
with  great  care,  for  germs  different  from  yeast  might 
get  in,  forming  lactic  acid — the  acid  of  sour  milk — 
and  other  substances  unpleasant  to  the  taste  and  harm- 
ful to  the  digestion. 

A  sponge  made  from  perfectly  pure  yeast  and  kept 
pure  may  stand  for  a  long  time  after  it  is  ready  for 
the  oven  and  still  show  no  signs  of  sourness. 

On  account  of  the  disagreeable  taste  of  leaven  and 
because  of  the  possibility  that  the  dough  might  reach 
the  stage  of  putrid  fermentation,  chemists  and  physi- 
cians sought  for  some  other  means  of  rendering  the 
bread  light  and  porous.  The  search  began  almost  as 


47 


40  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

soon  as  chemistry  was  worthy  the  name  of  a  science, 
and  one  of  the  early  patents  bears  the  date  1873.  Much 
time  and  thought  have  been  devoted  to  the  perfecting 
of  unfermented  bread;  but  since  the  process  of  beer- 
making  has  been  universally  introduced,  yeast  has 
been  readily  obtained,  and  is  an  effectual  means  of  giv- 
ing to  the  bread  a  porous  character  and  a  pleasant 
taste.  Since  the  chemistry  of  the  yeast  fermentation 
has  been  better  understood,  a  change  of  opinions  has 
come  about,  and  nearly  all  scientific  and  medical  men 
now  recommend  fermented  bread,  if  well  baked. 

chemistry  of         The  chemical  reactions  concerned  in  bread-making 
Bread-Making     are  sjmiiar  to  those  jn  beer-making.    To  the  flour  and 

warmed  water  is  added  yeast,  a  microscopic  plant, 
capable  of  causing  the  alcoholic  fermentation.  The 
yeast  begins  to  act  at  once,  but  slowly;  more  rapidly 
if  sugar  has  been  added  and  the  dough  is  a  semi-fluid. 
Without  the  addition  of  sugar  no  change  is  evident  to 
the  eye  for  some  hours,  as  the  fermentation  of  starch 
to  sugar  by  the  diastase  present  gives  no  gaseous 
products.  The  sugar  is  decomposed  by  the  yeast  plant 
into  alcohol  and  the  gas,  carbon  dioxide;  the  latter 
product  makes  itself  known  by  the  swelling  of  the 
whole  mass  and  the  bubbles  which  appear  on  the  sur- 
face. 

It  is  the  carbon  dioxide,  which  causes  the  sponge- 
like  condition  of  the  loaf  by  reason  of  the  peculiar 
tenacity  of  the  gluten,  one  of  the  constituents  of  wheat. 
It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  no  other  kind  of  grain  will 


48 


COOKING.  41 

make  so  light  a  bread  as  wheat.  It  is  the  right  pro- 
portion of  gluten  (a  nitrogenous  substance  to  be  con- 
sidered later)  which  enables  the  light  loaf  to  be  made 
of  wheat  flour. 

The  production  of  carbon  dioxide  is  the  end  of  the 
chemical  process.    The  rest  is  purely  mechanical. 

The  baking  of  the  loaf  has  for  its  object  to  kill  the  OVeot 
ferment,  to  heat  the  starch  sufficiently  to  render  it  Baking 
easily  soluble,  to  expand  the  carbon  dioxide  and  drive 
off  the  alcohol,  to  stiffen  the  gluten,  and  to  make  chem- 
ical changes  which  shall  give  a  pleasant  flavor  to  the 
crust.  The  oven  must  be  hot  enough  to  raise  the  tem- 
perature of  the  inside  of  the  loaf  to  212°  F,  or  the 
bacteria  will  not  all  be  killed.  A  pound  loaf,  four 
inches  by  four  inches  by  nine  inches  long,  may  be 
baked  three-quarters  of  an  hour  in  an  oven  where  the 
temperature  is  400°  F,  or  for  an  hour  and  a  half,  when 
the  temperature  during  the  time  does  not  rise  above 
350°  F.  Quick  baking  gives  a  white  loaf,  because  the 
starch  has  undergone  but  little  change.  The  long, 
slow  baking  gives  a  yellow  tint,  with  the  desirable 
nutty  flavor,  and  crisp  crust.  Different  flavors  in 
bread  are  supposed  to  be  caused  by  the  different 
varieties  of  yeast  used  or  by  bacteria,  which  are  pres- 
ent in  all  doughs,  as  ordinarily  prepared. 

The  brown  coloration  of  the  crust,  which  gives  a 

The  Crust 

peculiar  flavor  to  the  loaf,  is  caused  by  the  formation 
of  substances  analogous  to  dextrine  and  caramel,  due 
to  the  high  heat  to  which  the  starch  is  subjected. 


49 


42  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

One  hundred  pounds  of  flour  are  said  to  make  from 
126  to  150  pounds  of  bread.  This  increase  of  weight 
is  due  to  the  incorporation  of  water,  possibly  by  a 
chemical  union,  as  the  water  does  not  dry  out  of  a  loaf, 
as  it  does  out  of  a  sponge.  The  bread  seems  moist  when 
first  taken  from  the  oven,  and  dry  after  standing  some 
hours,  but  the  weight  will  be  found  to  be  nearly  the 
same.  It  is  this  probable  chemical  change  which  makes 
the  difference,  to  delicate  stomachs,  between  fresh 
bread  and  stale.  A  thick  loaf  is  best  when  eaten  after 
it  is  twenty-four  hours  old,  although  it  is  said  to  be 
"done"  when  ten  hours  have  passed.  Thin  biscuit  do 
not  show  the  same  ill  effects  when  eaten  hot. 

The  bread  must  be  well  baked  in  any  case,  in  order 
that  the  process  of  fermentation  may  be  stopped.  If 
this  be  stopped  and  the  mastication  be  thorough,  so 
that  the  bread  when  swallowed  is  in  finely  divided  por- 
tions instead  of  in  a  mass  or  ball,  the  digestibility  of 
fresh  and  stale  bread  is  about  the  same. 

water  The  expansion  of  water  or  ice  into  more  than  seven- 
teen hundred  times  its  volume  of  steam  is  sometimes 
taken  advantage  of  in  making  snow-bread,  water-gems, 
etc.  It  plays  a  part  in  the  lightening  of  pastry  and 
crackers. 

Air,  at  70  degrees,  doubles  its  volume  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  560  degrees  F,  so  that  if  air  is  entangled  in  a 
mass  of  dough,  it  gives  a  certain  lightness  when  the 
whole  is  baked.  This  is  the  cause  of  the  sponginess 
of  cakes  made  with  eggs.  The  viscous  albumen  or 


50 


COOKING.  43 

"white  of  egg"  catches  the  air  and  holds  it,  even  when 
it  is  expanded,  unless  the  oven  is  too  hot,  when  the 
sudden  expansion  is  liable  to  burst  the  bubbles  and  the 
cake  falls. 

FATS 

If  cream  instead  of  milk  is  used  on  the  cereal  or  in 
the  coffee,  this  with  the  butter  on  the  bread,  will  add 
a  considerable  amount  of  another  important  food, 
fat.  Fats  form  a  large  class  of  food  stuffs  which  in- 
clude the  animal  fats  like  cream,  butter,  suet,  lard, 
cod  liver  oil  and  tallow,  and  vegetable  fats  like  olive 
and  cotton-seed  oils,  etc.  Within  the  animal  body  ail 
fats  are  liquids,  being  held  in  little  cells  which  make 
up  the  fatty  tissue. 

The  digestion  of  fats  is  probably  something  like  a      Digestion 
process  of  soap  making.     With  the  intestinal  fluids,      of  Fats 
the  bile  especially,  the  fats  form  an  emulsion  in  which 
the  globules  are  finely  divided,  and  in  some  way  are 
rendered  capable  of  passing  through  the  membranes 
into  the  circulatory  system.     The  change,  if  any,  does 
not  destroy  the  properties  of  the  fatty  matters. 

If  we  define  cooking  as  the  application  of  heat,  then 
whatever  we  do  to  fats  in  the  line  of  cooking  is  liable 
to  hinder  rather  than  help  digestibility. 

Fats  may  be  heated  to  a  temperature  far  above  that      Cookinjr 
of  boiling  water  without   showing   any  change ;   but      of  Fats 
there  comes  a  point,  different  for  each  fat,  where  re- 
actions take  place,  the  products  of  which  irritate  the 
mucous  membranes  and  therefore  interfere  with  diges- 


51 


44 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 


Composition 
of   Fats 


Heat   from 
Fats 


tion.  It  is  the  volatile  products  of  such  decomposition 
which  cause  the  familiar  action  upon  the  eyes  and 
throat  during  the  process  of  frying,  and  also,  the  tell- 
tale odors  throughout  the  house.  The  indigestibility  of 
fatty  foods,  or  foods  cooked  in  fat,  is  due  to  these 
harmful  substances  produced  by  too  high  temperature. 

Many  fats  are  solid  at  ordinary  temperatures,  while 
others  are  always  liquids,  but  all  fatty  materials  have 
a  similar  composition.  When  pure  they  contain  only 
carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen.  They  differ  from 
starch  and  sugar  in  the  proportion  of  oxygen  to  the 
carbon  and  hydrogen,  there  being  very  little  oxygen 
relatively  in  fats,  hence  more  must  be  taken  from  the 
air  for  their  combustion.  If  persons  eat  much  fat  they 
must  have  more  fresh  air  to  burn  it.  A  person  confined 
to  the  house  needs  to  be  careful  what  fats,  and  how 
much,  are  taken. 

One  pound  of  starch  requires  one  and  two-tenths 
pounds  of  oxygen,  while  one  pound  of  suet  requires 
about  three  pounds  of  oxygen  for  perfect  combustion. 
This  combustion  of  oxygen  with  the  large  amount  of 
hydrogen,  as  well  as  with  the  carbon,  results  in  a 
greater  quantity  of  heat  from  fat,  pound  for  pound, 
than  can  be  obtained  from  starch  or  sugar.  Experi- 
ments indicate  that  the  fats  yield  more  than  twice  as 
much  •  heat  as  the  carbohydrates ;  hence  people  in 
Arctic  regions  use  large  amounts  of  fat  and  every- 
where the  diet  of  winter  may  safely  contain  more  fat 
than  that  of  summer. 


52 


NITROGENOUS  FOODS. 


45 


Both  fats  and  carbohydrates  are  the  sources  of  the 
energy  or  work  done  by  the  body  as  well  as  the  heat 
to  keep  up  the  vital  temperature  and  they  must  be 
increased  in  proportion  as  the  mechanical  work  of  the 
body  increases.  A  man  breaking  stone  needs  more  fat 
or  starch  than  the  student.  If  a  quantity  is  taken  at 
any  one  time  greater  than  the  body  needs  for  im- 
mediate work,  the  surplus  will  be  deposited  as  fat,  and 
this  will  be  drawn  in  case  of  a  lack  in  the  future  sup- 
ply of  either ;  it  is  like  a  bank  account. 

NITROGENOUS  FOODS 

The  animal  body  is  more  than  a  machine.  It  re- 
quires fuel  to  enable  it  not  only  to  work  but  also  to 
live,  even  without  working.  A  part  of  the  food  eaten 
must  go  to  maintain  the  body,  for  while  the  inani- 
mate machine  is  sent  periodically  to  the  repair-shop,  the 
living  machine  must  do  its  own  repairing,  day  by  day 
and  minute  by  minute. 

The  adult  animal  lives,  repairs  waste,  and  does 
work ;  while  the  young  animal  does  all  these  and  more 
— it  grows.  For  growth  and  repairs  something  else 
is  needed  beside  starch  and  fat. 

The  muscles  are  the  instruments  of  motion,  and 
they  must  be  nourished  in  order  that  they  may  have 
power.  The  nourishment  is  carried  to  them  by  the 
blood  in  which,  as  well  as  in  muscular  tissue,  there 
is  found  a  food  element  which  we  have  not  heretofore 
considered,  namely,  nitrogen.  It  has  been  proved  that 
the  use  of  the  muscles  and  the  brain  sets  free  certain 


Food 

a   Source 

of  Energy 


Nitrogen 
Necessary 


53 


Proteids 


46  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

nitrogenous  compounds  which  pass  out  of  the  system 
as  such,  and  this  loss  must  be  supplied  by  the  use  of 
some  kind  of  food  which  contains  nitrogen.  Starch 
and  fat  do  not  contain  this  element;  therefore  they 
cannot  furnish  it  to  the  blood. 

The  American  breakfast  will  probably  include  meat, 
fish,  or  eggs.  These  are  examples  of  the  nitrogenous 
food-stuffs.  Nitrogenous  food  compounds  are  some- 
times classed  together  under  the  name  of  proteins. 
These  may  be  -  divided  -into  proteids,  gelatinoids,  and 
extractives. 

The  proteids  all  resemble  albumin,  which  is  found 
nearly  pure  in  the  white  of  an  egg.  These  in  some 
form  are  never  absent  from  animal  and  vegetable  or- 
ganisms. They  are  most  abundant  in  animal  flesh  and 
in  the  blood.  Other  common  articles  of  diet  belong- 
ing to  this  group  in  addition  to  albumin,  are  the  curd 
of  milk  (casein),  the  lean  of  animal  flesh  and  fish 
and  gluten  of  wheat,  and  the  legumin  of  peas  and 
beans.  The  proteids  are  the  most  important  nitro- 
genous food  materials.  They  build  up  and  repair  the 
muscles,  tendons,  cartilage,  bones-,  and  skin  and  supply 
the  albumin  of  the  blood  and  other  fluids  of  the  body. 

The  animal  skeleton — horns,  bones,  cartilage,  con- 
nective tissues,  etc. — contains  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds which  are  converted  by  boiling  into  substances 
that  form  with  water  a  jelly-like  mass.  These  are 
known  as  the  gelatinoids  and  are  so  named  because  of 
their  resemblance  to  gelatin.  Although  somewhat 


54 


NITROGENOUS   FOODS. 


47 


similar  to  the  proteids  in  composition  they  are  not 
thought  to  be  true  flesh  formers.  However,  they  do 
help  out  the  proteids  in  some  unknown  way. 

The  chief  constituent  of  the  connective  tissues  of 
meats  is  collagen.  This  is  insoluble  in  cold  water,  but 
in  hot  water  becomes  soluble  and  yields  gelatin.  Col- 
lagen swells  when  heated  and  when  treated  with 
dilute  acids.  Steak  increases  in  bulk  when  placed 
over  the  coals,  and  tough  meat  is  rendered  tender  by 
soaking  in  vinegar.  Meat  a  few  days  old  is  tough, 
for  the  collagen  is  dry  and  hard.  In  time  it  becomes 
softened  by  acids  which  are  secreted  by  bacteria  either 
in  or  on  the  meat ;  the  meat  thus  becomes  tender  and 
easily  masticated.  Tannic  acid  has  the  opposite  effect 
upon  collagen,  hardening  and  shrinking  it.  This  ef- 
fect is  taken  advantage  of  in  tanning,  and  is  the  dis- 
advantage of  boiled  tea  as  a  beverage,  since  tea  always 
contains  a  little  of  this  tannic  acid  when  freshly  made 
and  much  more  if  the  tea  is  boiled. 

The  last  class  of  nitrogenous  compounds  are  the 
extractives,  so  called  because  they  are  readily  extracted 
by  water  from  meat  where  they  principally  occur.  The 
proteins  of  this  class  are  thought  to  have  little  value 
as  food,  but  they  give  the  flavor  to  meats,  etc.,  and  are 
therefore  of  great  importance.  They  are  stimulants, 
somewhat  of  the  nature  of  caffein  of  coffee  and  the 
thein  of  tea. 


Collagen 


Extractives 


55 


48  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

COOKING    OF    NITROGENOUS    FOOD-STUFFS. 

Cooking  should  render  nitrogenous  food  more  solu- 
ble because  here,  as  in  every  case,  digestibility  means 
solubility.  Egg  albumin  is  soluble  in  cold  water,  bu,- 
coagulates  at  about  160°  F.  At  this  point  it  is  ten- 
der, jelly-like,  and  easily  digested,  while  at  a  higher 
temperature  it  becomes  tough,  hard  and  dissolves  with 
difficulty.  Therefore,  when  the  white  of  egg  (al- 
bumin), the  curd  of  milk  (casein),  or  the  gluten  of 
wheat  are  hardened  by  heat,  a  much  longer  time  is 
required  to  effect  solution. 

Albumin  As  previously  stated,  egg  albumin  is  tender  and 
jelly-like  when  heated  from  160°  F  to  180°  F.  This 
fact  should  never  be  forgotten  in  the  cooking  of  eggs. 
Raw  eggs  are  easily  digested  and  are  rich  in  nutri- 
ment; when  heated  just  enough  to  coagulate  the  al- 
bumin or  "the  white,"  their  digestibility  is  not  ma- 
terially lessened;  but  when  boiled,  the  albumin  is 
rendered  much  less  soluble. 

In  frying  eggs,  the  fat  often  reaches  a  temperature 
of  300°  or  over — far  above  that  at  which  the  albumin 
becomes  tough,  hard,  and  well-nigh  insoluble. 

There  is  much  albumin  in  the  blood,  therefore  the 
juices  of  meat  extracted  in  cold  water  form  a  weak 
albuminous  solution.  If  this  be  heated  to  the  right 
temperature  the  albumin  is  coagulated  and  forms  the 
"scum"  which  many  a  cook  skims  off  and  throws  away. 
In  doing  this  she  wastes  a  portion  of  the  nutriment. 


56 


NITROGENOUS  FOODS.  49 

Experiments  on  the  digestibility  of  gluten  have  Gluten 
proved  that  a  high  temperature  largely  decreases  its 
solubility.  Subjected  to  artificial  digestion  for  the 
same  length  of  time,  nearly  two  and  one-half  times' 
as  much  nitrogen  was  dissolved  from  the  raw  gluten 
as  from  that  which  had  been  baked. 

When  gluten  is  combined  with  starch,  as  in  the 
cereals,  the  difficulties  of  correct  cooking  are  many, 
for  the  heat  which  increases  the  digestibility  of  the 
starch  decreases  that  of  the  gluten. 

Experiment.-  The  gluten  in  wheat  flour  may  be  ob- 
tained as  follows :  Place  half  a  cupful  of  flour  in  a 
muslin  bag  and  knead  under  water.  The  starch  will 
work  out  through  the  bag.  After  a  time  all  the  starch 
may  be  so  separated.  A  brown,  elastic,  stringy  mass 
remains  in  the  muslin.  This  is  gluten,  the  nitrogenous 
part  of  the  flour. 

The  same  principle  of  cooking  applies  to  casein  of      oasem 
milk,  although  to  a  less  extent.    There  seems  to  be  no 
doubt  that  boiling  decreases  its   solubility,  and  con- 
sequently, its  digestibility  for  persons  of  delicate  di- 
gestive power. 

The  nitrogenous  substances  of  meat  consist  of  solu-  Meat 
ble  albumin,  chiefly  in  the  blood  and  juices,  the  al- 
buminoids of  the  fibres,  the  gelatinoids  of  the  connect- 
ing tissues,  and  the  extractives.  The  cooking  should 
soften  and  loosen  the  connective  tissue,  so  that  the  lit- 
tle bundle  of  fibre  which  contains  the  nutriment  may 
fall  apart  easily  when  brought  in  contact  with  the 


57 


Broth 

and 

Soup 


50  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

teeth.     Any  process  which  toughens  and  hardens  the 
meat  should  be  avoided. 

When  it  is  desired  to  retain  the  juices  within  the 
meat  or  fish,  it  should  be  placed  in  boiling  water  so 
that  the  albumin  of  the  surface  may  be  hardened  and 
prevent  the  escape  of  the  albumin  of  the  interior.  The 
temperature  should  then  be  lowered  and  kept  between 
1 60  and  1 80  degrees  during  the  time  needed  for  the 
complete  breaking  down  of  the  connective  tissues. 

When  the  nutriment  is  to  be  used  in  broths,  stews, 
or  soups,  the  meat  should  be  placed  in  cold  water,  heat- 
ing very  slowly  and  the  temperature  not  allowed  to 
rise  above  180°  F  until  the  extraction  is  complete.  The 
extracted  meat  still  retains  the  greater  part  of  its 
original  proteid  substances.  It  is  tasteless  and  un- 
inviting, but  when  combined  with  vegetables  and 
flavoring  materials  may  be  made  into  a  palatable  and 
nutritious  food. 

Experiment.  To  show  the  effect  of  water  at  dif- 
ferent temperatures  upon  raw  meat,  place  a  bit  of  lean 
meat  about  as  large  as  the  finger  in  a  glass  of  cold 
water  and  let  it  stand  an  hour.^  The  water  becomes 
red,  and  the  meat  grows  white.  Pour  off  this  \vater 
and  boil  it.  A  scum  rises  to  the  surface.  The  albu- 
min dissolved  has  been  rendered  insoluble  by  heat. 

Put  a  bit  of  raw  meat  into  boiling  water,  and  boil  it 
hard  several  minutes.  The  meat  is  toughened  by  the 
process.  The  outside  of  the  meat  is  hardened  first, 
and  very  little  of  the  nutriment  dissolves  in  the  water. 


58 


FOOD.  51 

Put  the  meat  into  cold  water  and  bring  the  tem- 
perature slowly  to  the  boiling  point;  then  allow  it  to 
simmer  gently  for  some  time.  The  meat  is  tender,  and 
some  of  the  nutriment  is  in  the  water.  This  is  the 
method  employed  in  making  a  stew.  A  little  fat  which 
is  always  present  even  between  the  fibre  of  the  lean 
meat  will  be  melted  out  and  rise  to  the  top  of  the 
water. 

We  have  seen  that  the  ferment  in  the  saliva  changed  Digestion 
the  starch  into  a  sugar.  The  ferment  in  the  gastric 
juice,  pepsin,  with  the  help  of  an  acid  (principally 
hydrochloric  acid)  changes  the  albuminoids  into  pep- 
tones in  the  stomacli.  This  change  is  completed  in  the 
intestines.  The  peptones  are  soluble  in  water  and  are 
absorbed  into  the  blood. 

SUMMARY   OF   THE   EFFECTS   OF   COOKING 

The  object  of  all  cooking  is  to  make  the  food-stuffs 
more  palatable  or  more  digestible,  or  both  combined. 
In  general,  the  starchy  foods  are  rendered  more  di- 
gestible by  cooking;  the  albuminous  and  fatty  foods 
less  digestible.  The  appetite  of  civilized  man  craves 
and  custom  encourages  the  putting  together  of  raw 
materials  of  such  diverse  chemical  composition  that 
the  processes  of  cooking  are  also  made  complex. 

Bread — the  staff  of  life — requires  a  high  degree  of 
heat  to  kill  the  plant-life,  and  long  baking  to  prepare 
the  starch  for  solution;  while,  by  the  same  process, 
the  gluten  is  made  less  soluble.  Fats,  alone,  are  easily 
digested,  but  in  the  ordinary  method  of  frying,  they 


59 


Effect   on 
Solubility 


Common 
Salt 


52  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

not  only  may  become  decomposed  themselves,  and 
therefore  injurious  ;  but  they  also  prevent  the  necessary 
action  of  heat,  or  of  the  digestive  ferments  upon  the 
starchy  materials  with  which  the  fats  are  mixed. 

The  effects  of  cooking  upon  the  solubility  of  the 
three  important  food-principles  may  be  broadly  stated 
thus: 

Starchy  foods  are  made  more  soluble  by  long  cook- 
ing at  moderate  temperatures  or  by  heat  high  enough 
to  change  a  portion  of  the  starch  to  dextrine,  as  in 
the  brown  crust  of  bread. 

Nitrogenous  foods.  The  animal  and  vegetable  al- 
bumins are  made  less  soluble  by  heat;  the  gelatinoids 
more  soluble. 

Fats  are  readily  absorbed  in  their  natural  condition, 
but  are  decomposed  at  very  high  temperatures  and 
their  products  become  irritants. 

MINERAL  MATTER 

The  remaining  ingredient  of  the  food  of  our  break- 
fast to  be  considered  is  the  mineral  matter  which  con- 
stitutes the  ash  when  food-products  are  burned.  There 
is  only  5  or  6  per  cent  of  mineral  elements  in  our  bod- 
ies, but  these  materials  are  necessary  to  life  and  health. 
They  are  found  chiefly  in  the  bones  and  teeth,  but  are 
present  also  in  the  flesh,  blood,  and  other  fluids.  Phos- 
phate of  calcium  forms  the  principal  mineral  part  of 
the  bones. 

The  food  we  eat  contains  a  small  amount  of  mineral 
matter  which  forms  the  ashes  when  food  is  burned. 


60 


MINERAL  MATTER.  S3 

This  mineral  matter  gives  the  body  the  mineral  salts 
which  it  needs ;  but  in  addition  to  this,  most  people  de- 
sire and  eat  a  considerable  quantity  of  common  salt 
every  day.  The  amount  eaten  is  far  in  excess  of  the 
sodium  and  chlorine  the  body  requires,  though  sodium 
is  an  important  constituent  of  many  of  the  fluids  of  the 
body,  and  chlorine  is  found  in  hydrochloric  acid  of  the 
gastric  juice,  the  digestive  fluid  of  the  stomach.  A 
great  diversity  of  opinion  exists  as  to  the  desirability 
of  much  salt  in  the  diet,  but  the  balance  of  evidence  in- 
dicates that  a  liberal  amount  of  salt  is  not  harmful,  but 
rather  beneficial. 

Experiment.  To  show  the  mineral  part  of  bones, 
place  a  moderate  sized  bone  on  a  hot  coal  fire  for  half 
an  hour  or  longer. 

To  show  the  gelatinoids  of  bones,  place  a  small  bone 
in  a  shallow  dish  and  cover  with  strong  vinegar  or 
weak  hydrochloric  acid  (muriatic  acid)  and  let  stand 
over  night  or  longer.  The  acid  will  dissolve  out  the 
phosphate  of  calcium  leaving  the  animal  matter. 

Coffee,  an  important  part  of  the  breakfast  to  most  Flavor 
people,  introduces  an  important  feature  of  the  chem- 
istry of  cooking — the  production  of  the  proper  flavor. 
The  chemical  changes  involved  are  too  subtile  for  ex- 
planation here — indeed  many  are  not  understood.  The 
change  in  the  coffee  berry  by  roasting  is  a  familiar  il- 
lustration. The  heat  of  the  fire  causes  the  breaking 
up  of  a  .substance  existing  in  the  berry,  and  the  forma- 
tion of  several  new  ones.  If  the  heat  is  not  sufficient, 


61 


54  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

the  right  odor  will  not  be  given;  if  it  is  too  great,  the 
aroma  will  be  dissipated  into  the  air,  or  the  compound 
will  be  destroyed. 

Broiling  steak  is  another  illustration — a  few  seconds 
too  long,  a  few  degrees  too  hot,  and  the  delicate  morsel 
becomes  an  irritating  mass.  The  chemistry  of  flavor- 
producing  is  the  application  of  heat  to  the  food  material 
in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  about  the  right  changes  and 
only  these.  Flavors  in  addition  to  the  pleasure  they 
give  to  eating  have  the  advantage  of  stimulating  the 
flow  of  digestive  fluids  and  making  digestion  more 
easy. 

DECAY 

The  clearing  away  of  the  breakfast  introduces  to  the 
housekeeper  two  important  problems: — (i)  the  pres- 
ervation of  the  remaining  food  from  decay;  (2)  the 
proper  cleaning  of  the  articles  used  during  the  meal 
and  its  preparation. 

Decay  is  caused  by  minute  vegetable  organisms 
known  as  moulds  and  bacteria.  Both  are  present  in 
the  air  either  as  the  plants  themselves  or  as  their 
spores,  the  reproductive  cells,  ready  to  grow  whenever 
they  fall  upon  suitable  soil.  When  these  grow  upon 
animal  or  vegetable  substances,  a  variety  of  new  com- 
pounds are  formed,  many  of  them  taking  oxygen  from 
the  air,  so  that  finally  the  carbon  becomes  carbon  diox- 
ide, the  hydrogen  is  oxydized  to  form  water,  and  the 
other  elements  in  their  turn  also  become  oxides,  so 
that  the  decaying  substance  is  utterly  destroyed  and 


62 


DECAY.  55 

new  substances  made  in  its  place.  When  organic  sub- 
stances are  protected  from  the  action  of  these  living 
plants,  decay  will  not  ensue. 

The  old  idea  was  that  oxygen   caused  decay,  but     Dgca    Not 
many  experiments  disprove  this.     Oxygen  alone  does      caused  by 
not  produce  this  result,  but  oxygen  with  "germs"  will 
do  so.     These  "germs"  develop  much  more  slowly  in 
the  cold,  so  that  food  is  placed  in  the  refrigerator  or 
in  a  cool  place  and  away  from  the  dust. 

The  problems  introduced  by  these  living  plants,  their 
life  history  and  their  work,  as  well  as  the  methods  of 
prevention  and  care  against  their  ravages,  belong 
rather  to  household  bacteriology  than  to  chemistry. 
We  are  ready  therefore  to  pass  on  to  our  next  prob- 
lem, that  of  cleaning. 


fi3 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD, 

PARTL 


Read  Carefully.  Place  your  name  and  address  on  the  first 
sheet  of  the  test.  Use  a  light  grade  of  paper  and  write  on  one 
side  of  the  sheet  only.  Do  not  copy  answers  from  the  lesson 
paper.  Use  your  own  words,  so  that  your  instructor  may  knou 
that  you  understand  the  subject.  Read  the  lesson  paper  a  num- 
ber of  times  before  attempting  to  answer  the  questions. 


1.  What  do  you  understand  a  "chemical  element"  to 

be  ?    Name  all  that  you  have  ever  seen. 

2.  What  is  a  "saturated  solution  ?" 

Name  the  substances  usually    found    in    the 
house  which  are  soluble  in  water. 

3.  What    causes     atmospheric    pressure?    Explain 

some  effects  of  it. 

4.  Why  must  the  diet  of  animals  include  fresh  air  ? 

5.  Explain  the  effect  of  cooking  on  starch,     (b)  On 

fats,     (c)  On  proteids. 

6.  What  are  the  products  of  combustion  in  burning 

coal  or  wood  ? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  "conservation  of  matter?" 

8.  How  can  the  boiling  point  of  water  be  raised? 

How  may  it  be  lowered? 


64 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

g.    What  is  meant  when  it  is  said  that  a  chemical 
substance  always  has  the  same  composition  ? 

10.  What  is  "latent  heat?" 

11.  What  can  you  say  of  the  composition  of  meat? 

12.  Explain  the  physical  and  chemical  changes  which 

starch  must  undergo  before  it  is  absorbed  into 
the  circulation. 

13.  What  can  you  say  of  the  chemistry  of  bread- 

% 

making  ? 

14.  Why  is  distilled  water  pure? 

15.  Explain  the  composition  of  water. 

1 6.  Describe  the  chemistry  of  a  sulphur  match. 

17.  How  is  charcoal  prepared?    How  is  coke  made? 

18.  Why  does  the  proportion  of  carbon  dioxide  in  the 

atmosphere  not  increase? 

19.  In  what  different  ways  is  food  used  in  the  body? 

20.  Do  you  understand  all  parts  of  this  lesson  paper  ? 

If  not,  what  part  is  not  clear  ? 

NOTE. —  After  completing  the  test  sign  your  full  name. 


65 


o 
o 


o 
o 


o 

o 


A  MECHANICAL  WASHING  DEVICE 

Made  to  fit  in  the  bottom  of  a  wash  boiler.    The  formation  of 

steam  forces  the  hot,  soapy  water  up  the  spouts, 

over  and  through  the  clothes. 


ROTARY  TYPE  OF  WASHER 
Piston  Water  Motor  Attached 


"1900"  WASHER 
Electrically  Driven 


66 


CHEMISTRY   OF   THE    HOUSEHOLD 

A  Day's  Chemistry 
PART    II. 


CLEANING 

The  cleaning  of  the  dishes,  silver,  cutlery,  and  linen 
introduces  a  great  variety  of  chemical  problems.  The 
subject  of  the  chemistry  of  cleaning  may  well  include 
with  the  daily  task  of  dishwashing,  the  equally  im- 
portant ones  of  house  cleaning  and  laundry  work. 

The  various  processes  of  housework  give  rise  to 
many  volatile  substances,  such  as  the  vapor  of  water 
or  fat.  If  not  carried  out  of  the  house  in  their  vapor- 
ous state  these  cool  and  settle  upon  all  exposed  sur- 
faces, whether  walls,  furniture,  or  fabrics.  This  thin 
film  entangles  and  holds  the  dust,  clouding  and  soil- 
ing with  a  layer  more  or  less  visible  everything  within 
the  house.  The  fires  and  lights  give  out  smoky  de- 
posits of  incomplete  combustion.  The  dishes  are  soiled 
with  waste  from  all  kinds  of  foods — starch,  grease,  al- 
bumin, milk,  gums,  or  gelatines  and  the  juices  of 
fruits. 

Dust  alone  might  be  removed  from  most  surfaces 
with  a  damp  or  even  with  a  dry  cloth,  or  from  fabrics 
by  vigorous  shaking  or  brushing;  but  usually  the 
greasy  or  sugary  deposits  must  first  be  broken  up  and 
the  dust  thus  set  freer  This  must  be  accomplished 
without  harm  to  the  material  which  is  dirty. 


67 


56  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

Cleaning,  then,  involves  two  processes :  ( I )  the 
greasy  or  gummy  film  must  be  broken  up,  that  the 
entangled  dust  and  dirt  may  be  set  free ;  (2)  the  dust 
must  be  removed  by  mechanical  means. 

We  will  have  occasion  to  use  alkalis  for  cleaning  and 
acids  for  removing  stains  and  it  will  be  well  to  consid- 
er what  is  meant  by  the  terms,  acid,  alkali,  and  salt. 

An  An  acid  is  a  substance  with  an  acid  or  sour  taste 
Acid  and  having  the  property  of  changing  certain  vegetable 
colors.  A  substance  much  used  in  testing  for  acids  is 
litmus,  a  kind  of  fungus,  giving  a  blue  solution  in 
water.  Paper  soaked  in  litmus  solution  and  dried  is 
known  as  test  paper  or  litmus  paper.  It  can  be  bought 
at  any  druggist's.  This  paper  is  turned  red  by  the 
presence  of  any  acid,  even  in  the  most  minute  quantity. 
An  acid  will  cause  effervescence  with  a  carbonate  like 
cooking  soda  or  washing  soda. 

An         An  alkali  is  a  substance  often  having  a  soapy  taste, 
Alkali     a  siippery  feeling  if  strong,  and  the  property  of  turn- 
ing red  litmus,  blue. 

Alkalies  will  neutralize  the  effects  of  acids.  If  an 
acid  be  added  very  carefully  to  an  alkaline  solution, 
there  comes  a  point  where  the  mixture  will  change  the 
color  of  litmus  in  neither  direction.  The  solution  is 
neither  acid  nor  alkaline,  and  is  said  to  be  neutral. 
If  we  make  a  weak  solution  of  the  acid  sold  at  the 
drug  stores  as  muriatic  acid,  and  add  to  this  very  care- 
fully a  weak  solution  of  caustic  soda,  until  the  solu- 
tion is  neutral,  we  shall  find  that  the  neutral  solution 


68 


CLEANING.  57 

will  taste  like  table  salt.     In  fact,  we  have  made  com- 
mon salt  in  this  way. 

A  chemical  salt  is  a  substance  obtained  by  neutraliz-      A  Salt 
ing  an  acid  with  an  alkali  or  otherwise — a  substance 
that  is  usually  neutral  and  will  turn  the  color  of  neither 
red  nor  blue  litmus  paper. 

All  acids  contain  the  element  hydrogen,  which  can 
often  be  driven  out  and  replaced  by  a  metal  placed  in 
the  acid.  If  we  drop  a  bit  of  zinc  into  some  muriatic 
acid,  tiny  bubbles  of  hydrogen  begin  to  escape.  The 
zinc  joins  the  remainder  of  the  acid,  making  a 
new  substance.  This  new  substance  is  the  metallic 
salt,  called  muriate  (or  chloride)  of  zinc.  Muriatic 
acid  is  also  called  hydrochloric  acid.  Thus  a  salt  re- 
sults from  neutralizing  an  acid  with  a  metal.  If  oxide 
of  zinc,  a  white  powder,  has  been  used  in  place  of  the 
metal,  the  same  salt,  chloride  of  zinc,  would  have  been 
made ;  but  no  hydrogen  gas  would  have  come  off,  for 
the  hydrogen  of  the  acid  would  unite  with  oxygen  of 
the  oxide  and  form  water. 

Grease  or  fats,  called  oils  when  liquid  at  ordinary      Fata 
temperature,  are  chemical  compounds  made  of  carbon,      Sal 
oxygen,   and   hydrogen   combined   in   many   different 
ways,  but  all  contain  an  ingredient  of  an  acid  nature 
known  to  the  chemist  as  a  fatty  acid.     The  fatty  acid 
base  is  combined  with  glycerine  in  the  common  fats. 

Strong  alkaline  substances  will  break  up  fats  into 
their  parts  and  combine  with  the  fatty  acid,  thus 
making  soap. 


69 


58  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

Alkali         The   elements    which   form   strong  alkalis   are  the 

Metais  "alkali  metals."  The  common  elements  of  this  group 
are  sodium  and  potassium.  There  is  also  ammonium 
which  is  not  an  element,  but  a  combination  of  nitrogen 
and  hydrogen ;  it  acts,  however,  like  an  alkali  metal. 

When  an  element  unites  with  water  in  a  certain  way 
it  is  called  a  hydrate  or  hydroxide.  The  hydrate  of 
ammonium — aqua  ammonia  or  ammonia — is  known  as 
the  "Volatile  alkali"  because  it  evaporates  so  easily. 
It  is  valuable  for  use  in  all  cleansing  operations — in 
the  kitchen,  the  laundry,  the  bath,  in  the  washing  of 
delicate  fabrics,  and  in  other  cases  where  its  property 
of  evaporation,  without  leaving  any  residue  to  attack 
the  fabric  or  to  absorb  anything  from  the  air,  is  in- 
valuable. 

caustic         The  hydrates  of  potassium  and  sodium  are  called 
s°nd     caustic  potash  and  caustic  soda,  respectively,  or  the 

BJS2J  caustic  alkalis  or  "lyes"  because  they  "burn"  animal 
tissues.  These  combine  readily  with  fats  to  form 
compounds  which  we  call  soaps. 

Most  of  the  fats  are  soluble  in  turpentine,  ether, 
chloroform,  naphtha,  or  kerosene,  and  somewhat  in 
alcohol.  That  is,  the  fats  are  dissolved  unchanged, 
just  as  salt  is  taken  up  by  water.  These  form  solvents 
for  greases  more  or  less  valuable  according  to  con- 
ditions. 

If  the  housekeeper's  problem  were  the  simple  one 
of  removing  the  grease  alone,  she  would  solve  it  by  the 
free  use  of  one  of  the  solvents  or  by  some  of  the  strong 


70 


CLEANING.  5$ 

alkalis.  This  is  what  the  painter  does  when  he  is 
called  to  repaint  or  to  refinish;  but  the  housewife 
wishes  to  preserve  the  finish  or  the  fabric  while  she 
removes  the  dirt.  She  must,  then,  choose  those  ma- 
terials which  will  dissolve  or  unite  with  the  grease 
without  injury  to  the  article  cleaned. 

Soap  is  by  all  odds  the  safest  and  most  useful  goa 
cleaning  agent.  It  is  made  from  most  of  the  common 
animal  and  vegetable  fats  and  oils,  as  tallow,  suet,  lard, 
cotton  seed  oil  and  cocoanut  oil,  chemically  combined 
with  caustic  soda  or  caustic  potash.  Castile  soap  is  sup- 
posed to  be  made  from  olive  oil.  Rosin  soap  forms  a 
part  of  all  common  yellow  soap.  It  lessens  the  cost 
and  makes  a  good  soap  for  rough  work.  Silicate  of 
soda  is  sometimes  added  to  cheap  soaps.  It  has  some 
cleansing  action,  but  must  be  regarded  as  an  adulter- 
ant. 

Good  soaps  are  nearly  neutral  substances  because 
the  alkali  has  been  neutralized  by  the  fatty  acid.  The 
coarser  grades  may  contain  more  or  less  free  alkali. 
All  soaps  are  slightly  decomposed  when  dissolved  in 
water.  The  freed  fatty  acid  produces  the  milkiness 
seen  when  a  cake  of  soap  is  placed  in  perfectly  pure 
water. 

The   cleaning   action    of   soaps    consists   chiefly   in      Action 
forming   emulsions    with   oily    or   greasy    substances.      of  SoaP 
Cream  is  an  example  of  a  very  perfect  emulsion.     Its 
fat  is  in  the  shape  of  very  finely  divided  globules  and 
because  of  the  whey  which  surrounds  them,  the  cream 
can  be  mixed  with  a  very  large  quantity  of  water  and 


71 


60  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

show  no  sign  of  greasiness.  When  the  whey  is  sep- 
arated as  in  churning,  the  globules  of  fat  come  together 
and  butter  is  formed.  An  emulsion  is  not  a  true  solu- 
tion, for  the  particles  of  fat  can  be  separated  by  proper 
means  from  the  liquid. 

The  soap  makes  an  emulsion  with  the  oily  or  greasy 
substances  holding  the  dirt,  so  that  both  may  be 
washed  away  by  the  water.  A  certain  proportion  of 
free  alkali  in  soap  helps  the  action,  but  it  has  a  cor- 
rosive effect  on  many  materials.  Soap  will  form 
emulsions  with  many  other  materials  besides  fats  and 
oils;  so  while  water  is  a  very  general  solvent,  soap 
and  water  will  take  up  many  additional  substances. 
Kinds  The  housekeeper  may  be  familiar  with  two  kinds  of 
Soap  soap :  hard  soaps  and  soft  soaps.  Caustic  soda  makes 
the  -hard  soaps  and  caustic  potash  makes  the  soft 
soaps. 

Caustic  potash  is  derived  from  wood  ashes  and  a  few 
generations  ago  soft  soap  was  the  only  laundry  soap 
used.  Wood  ashes  were  plenty  when  wood  fires  were 
universal.  Soda-ash  was  at  that  time  derived  from 
sea  weeds,  and  therefore  uncommon  inland.  Early  in 
the  century  a  French  manufacturer,  Leblanc,  dis- 
covered a  process  of  making  soda-ash  from  sodium 
chloride  or  common  salt.  This  quite  reversed  the  con- 
dition of  the  two  alkalis,  for  now  soda-ash  is  much 
more  common,  and  the  manufacture  of  soap  on  a  large 
scale  really  began  then.  Soda-ash  is  now  the  cheapest 
form  of  alkali.  Caustic  soda  is  made  from  soda-ash. 


72 


CLEANING.  61 

The  terms,  soda-ash,  and  pot-ash  have  been  used;  soda-Ash 
these  substances  in  chemical  terms  are  respectively 
the  carbonate  of  sodium  and  the  carbonate  of  potas- 
sium. They  are  chemical  compounds  made  up  of  car- 
bonic acid  and  two  metals — sodium  and  potassium. 
When  the  carbon  dioxide,  which  we  have  seen  is 
formed  by  the  combustion  of  carbon,  is  added  to  water, 
carbonic  acid  results.  This  is  a  very  weak  acid  and 
when  it  is  combined  with  the  very  strongly  alkaline 
elements,  sodium  or  potassium,  the  result  is  an  alka- 
line substance.  Soda-ash  and  potash  (sometimes  called 
pearl-ash)  are  called  alkalis,  but  they  are  not  nearly 
so  powerful  as  the  hydrates  of  sodium  and  potassium 
which  are  commonly  called  caustic  soda  and  caustic 
potash. 

When  soda-ash,  which  is  a  white  powder,  is  dis-      washing 
solved  in  hot  water  and  the  solution  is  cooled,  crystals      Soda 
of  the  common  washing  soda  are  formed.    This  sub- 
stance is  also  called  "sal  soda"  and  "soda  crystals." 
The  crystals  contain  about  65  per  cent  of  water  and 
when  exposed  to  the  air,  lose  some  of  this  water  and 
crumble  to  the  white  powder,  soda-ash.     The  powder 
is,  therefore,  stronger  than  the  original  crystals. 

Washing  soda  should  never  be  used  in  a  solid  form, 
but  should  be  dissolved  in  a  separate  dish,  and  the 
solution  used  with  judgment.  A  satisfactory  amount 
is  about  two  ounces  of  the  dry  soda  to  a  large  tub  of 
water,  and  well  dissolved  before  the  clothes  are  put  in. 
Nearly  all  of  the  "washing  compounds"  on  the  market 


73 


62 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 


depend  upon  the  washing  soda  for  their  efficiency,  and 
sometimes  they  contain  nothing  else. 

Borax  Borax  is  a  useful  alkali,  milder  than  washing  soda, 
but  effective  as  a  cleaner,  disinfectant,  and  bleacher. 
It  is  more  expensive  than  either  of  the  others  de- 
scribed, and  because  of  its  weaker  alkaline  action,  more 
of  it  must  be  used  to  produce  a  given  result.  It  is 
much  less  irritating  to  the  skin  and  less  injurious  to 
fabrics  than  soda,  so  for  some  uses  its  additional  cost 
may  be  justified.  Caustic  potash  or  "lye"  is  too  strong 
an  alkali  to  use  on  fabrics,  but  is  valuable  to  put  down 
the  kitchen  sink  drain  to  free  it  from  grease.  The 
soap  made  in  the  drain  will  be  washed  out  by  water. 
Solid  washing  soda  may  be  used  for  the  same  pur- 
pose. 
Hard  In  the  laundry  the  composition  of  water  is  im- 

water  pOrtant.  Water  for  domestic  use  is  either  hard  or  soft, 
according  as  it  contains  a  greater  or  less  quantity  of 
certain  soluble  salts — usually  compounds  of  lime  or 
magnesia,  which  have  been  taken  up  by  the  water  while 
passing  through  the  soil. 

When  the  hardness  is  caused  by  calcium  carbonate 
(carbonate  of  lime)  it  is  called  "temporary"  hardness, 
because  it  may  be  overcome  by  boiling.  The  excess  of 
carbon  dioxide  is  driven  off  and  the  carbonate  of  lime 
separates  out.  The  same  separation  is  accomplished 
by  the  addition  of  sal  soda,  borax,  or  ammonia. 

When  the  hardness  is  due  to  the  sulphates  and 
chlorides  of  magnesia  or  lime,  it  cannot  be  removed 


Temporary 
Hardness 


Permanent 
Hardness 


74 


CLEANING.  63 

by  boiling.  It  is  then  known  as  "permanent"  hard- 
ness. Public  water  supplies  are  sometimes  softened 
before  delivery  to  the  consumer  by  the  addition  of 
slaked  lime,  which  absorbs  the  carbon  dioxide,  and 
the  previously  dissolved  carbonate  separates  out. 

Soft  water  is  needed  in  laundry  work  both  for 
cleanness  and  economy,  and  water  not  naturally  soft 
should  be  softened  by  boiling  or  by  the  addition  of  the 
before  mentioned  substances. 

When  soap  is  added  to  the  hard  water,  it  is  decom- 
posed by  the  water,  and  the  new  compound  formed  by 
the  union  of  the  lime  and  magnesia  with  the  fatty  acid 
of  the  soap  is  insoluble,  and  therefore  settles  upon  any 
article  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  Until  all  the 
lime  has  been  taken  out,  there  will  be  no  action  be- 
tween the  soap  and  the  dirt.  Therefore,  large  quanti- 
ties of  soap  must  be  wasted.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
each  grain  of  carbonate  of  lime  per  gallon  causes  an 
increased  expenditure  of  two  ounces  of  soap  per  100 
gallons,  and  that  the  increased  expense  for  soap  in  a 
household  of  five  persons  where  such  hard  water  is 
used  might  amount  to  five  or  ten  dollars  yearly. 

This  "lime  soap,"  although  insoluble  in  water,  will 
dissolve  readily  in  kerosene  or  naphtha,  for  which  rea- 
son, kerosene  will  be  found  very  effective  for  cleaning 
bowls  or  the  bath  tub  when  the  surface  has  become 
coated  from  the  use  of  hard  water  and  soap. 

Hard  waters  produce  certain  undesirable  effects  in 
cooking  processes.  The  cooking  of  beans  and  similar 


Soap  and 
Hard  Water 


Cooking   with 
Hard   Water 


75 


64  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

vegetables  should  soften  the  cellulose  and  break  up 
the  compact  grains  of  starch.  It  is  difficult  to  cook 
vegetables  in  hard  water,  for  the  legumin  of  the  vegeta- 
ble forms  an  insoluble  compound  with  the  lime  or 
magnesia  of  the  water,  and  the  cellulose  is  softened 
with  great  difficulty.  Hard  water  does  not  readily 
extract  the  flavor  from  tea  and  coffee,  and  therefore 
much  more  of  either  must  be  used  to  get  the  desired 
strength. 

Dish  During  this  discussion  of  cleansing  agents,  let  us 
washing  hOpe  fast  fae  breakfast  dishes  have  been  soaking  in 
water,  after  having  carefully  scraped  or  "scrapped" 
so  as  to  save  soap  in  washing  and  to  keep  the  water 
as  clean  as  possible.  Plenty  of  hot  water  and  soap 
with  clean,  dry  towels  is  the  secret  of  quick  and  easy 
work.  If  the  hard  water  is  used,  it  may  be  softened 
for  the  soap  is  doing  no  good  unless  there  is  a  strong 
suds. 

To  save  the  appearance  of  the  hands,  use  a  good 
white  soap,  free  from  alkali,  and  soften  the  water  with 

borax. 

«k 

Glass,  silver  ware,  china  and  kitchen  ware  take  their 
turn.  All  should  be  rinsed  in  hot  water  to  remove 
the  soap  and  heat  the  dishes  so  that  they  will  drain 
nearly  dry  and  thus  make  wiping  easy.  In  the  dish 
washing  machine  used  in  large  hotels  and  restaurants, 
the  dishes  are  simply  washed  with  soapy  water  and 
rinsed  in  very  hot  water  while  in  such  a  position  that 


76 


CLEANING.  65 

they  drain  perfectly.     They  dry  completely  and  re- 
quire no  wiping.    Fig.  1 6. 


Fig.    16.     Dish    Washing    Machine    Used   In    Large    Hotels    and 
Restaurants. 

Experiment.  Wash  a  plate  and  dip  it  in  very  hot 
water,  then  place  it  so  that  all  parts  will  drain.  Ob- 
serve if  it  dries  completely.  See  if  you  can  wash  the 
dishes  in  this  manner  with  very  little  wiping  and  if 
time  would  thus  be  saved. 


77 


66  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  LAUNDRY 

If  the  morning  happens  to  be  Monday,  the  washing 
is  probably  in  progress  in  the  average  American  fam- 
ily. The  mistress  should  understand  the  chemical 
principles  involved  and  every  detail  of  the  work,  in 
order  that  the  best  results  may  be  secured,  and  that 
the  clothes  may  not  be  harmed. 

structure  The  fibres  of  cotton,  silk,  and  wool  vary  greatly 
in  their  structure  and  a  knowledge  of  this  structure 
as  shown  under  the  microscope,  may  guide  to  proper 
methods  of  treatment.  Fig.  17. 

cotton  The  fibres  of  cotton,  though  tubular,  become  much 
flattened  during  the  process  of  manufacture,  and  under 
the  microscope,  show  a  characteristic  twist,  with  the 
ends  gradually  tapering  to  a  point.  It  is  this  twist, 
which  makes  them  capable  of  being  made  into  a  firm, 
hard  thread. 

Wool  The  wool  fibre,  like  human  hair,  is  marked  by  trans- 
verse divisions,  and  these  divisions  are  serrated.  These 
teeth  become  curled,  knotted  or  tangled  together  by 
rubbing,  by  very  hot  water,  or  by  strong  alkalies. 
This  causes  shrinking,  which  should  be  prevented. 
When  the  two  fibres  are  mixed,  there  is  less  opportun- 
ity for  the  little  teeth  to  become  entangled  and  there- 
fore there  is  less  shrinkage. 

Linen  fibres  are  much  like  cotton,  with  slight  notches 

Linen 

or  joints  along  the  walls.  These  notches  serve  to  hold 
the  fibres  closely  together,  and  enable  them  to  be 
felted  to  form  paper.  Linen,  then,  will  shrink,  though 


78 


THE  LAUNDRY. 


not  so  much  as  wool,  for  the  fibres  are  more  wiry  and 
the  teeth  much  shorter. 

Silk  fibres  are  perfectly  smooth  and  when  rubbed, 
simply  slide  over  each  other.  This  produces  a  slight 
shrinkage  in  the  width  of  woven  fabrics. 

Cotton  and  wool  differ 
greatly  in  their  resistance 
to  the  treatment  of  chemi- 
cals. Cotton  is  very  little 
affected  by  a  solution  of  the 
alkalies,  when  the  cloth  is 
well  rinsed.  If  the  alkali  is 
not  removed  completely, 
however,  it  becomes  very 
concentrated  when  the  cloth 
dries,  and  as  it  generally 
acts  for  a  long  time,  the 
fibre  may  be  weakened  or 
"tendered." 

Cold  dilute  solutions  of  the  acids  have  no  very  great 
effect  on  cotton,  provided  always  that  they  are  com- 
pletely washed  out.  Strong  or  hot  solutions  of  acids 
have  a  very  decided  deleterious  action,  and  even  a  very 
minute  quantity  of  acid  dried  on  the  goods  tenders  the 
fibre  badly. 

Wool  resists  the  acids  well,  but  is  much  harmed 
by  the  action  of  the  alkalies.  A  warm  solution  of  caus- 
tic soda  or  caustic  potash  will  dissolve  wool  quickly 
and  completely.  The  carbonates,  like  washing  soda, 


B        c       o     E 

Fig.    17.     Textile   Fibres  Much 

Magnified. 

a,    Wool;   b,   Mohair;    C,    Cot- 
ton; d,   Silk;  e,   Linen. 


Silk 


Chemical 
Action 
on  Fibres 


79 


68 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 


have  not  such  a  decided  effect,  but  they  make  the  wool 
harsh  and  less  'flexible. 

Linen  resembles  cotton  and  silk  is  much  like  wool 
in  the  resistance  to  chemical  action,  but  the  linen  is 
more  affected  by  the  alkalies  than  cotton  and  silk  is 
more  acted  on  bv  acids  than  wool. 


Mercerization 


Soaking 


Fig.   18.     Sections   of    Ordinary    and  Mercer- 
ized Cotton  Fibres. 


That  cotton  fibre  is  not  seriously  affected  by  alka- 
lies is  shown  by  the  process  of  mercerization.  In  this 
process,  patented  by  Mercer  in  1852,  the  cotton  threads 
are  treated  with  a  strong  solution  of  caustic  soda 
while  under  tension.  The  fibres  lose  their  twisted  and 
hollow  shape  and  become  more  rod-like  and  nearly 
solid,  as  shown  in  Fig.  18.  The  threads  have  a  tend- 
ency to  shrink  considerably,  but  are  prevented  by  the 
tension.  This  and  the  method  of  manipulation  gives 
the  mercerized  fabric  the  characteristic  gloss  some- 
what resembling  silk. 

In  laundering,  the  best  practice  seems  to  be  to 
soak  the  white  clothes  at  least,  in  cold  water  or  in 
luke-warm  suds.  The  badly  soiled  portions  may  be 
soaped  and  rolled  tightly  to  keep  the  soap  where  it  is 


80 


THE  LAUNDRY.  69 

most  needed.  The  water  should  be  well  softened,  and 
a  very  little  extra  washing  soda  solution  may  be 
added.  The  soaking  loosens  the  dirt  and  saves  much 
rubbing  and  hence  wear  on  the  clothes.  It  is  probable 
that  the  cleansing  wears  out  the  articles  which  make 
up  the  weekly  wash  more  than  the  actual  use  they  re- 
ceive. 

After  washing  the  clothes,  they  may  be  wrung  out  Boiling 
and  put  into  a  boiler  of  cold  water,  which  is  then 
heated  and  boiled  briskly  for  a  little  while.  Whether 
to  boil,  or  not  to  boil  the  clothes  depends  largely 
upon  the  purity  of  the  materials  used.  If  there  is  any 
iron  in  the  water,  or  elsewhere,  it  is  sure  to  be  de- 
posited on  the  goods,  thus  producing  yellowness.  Soap 
may  be  added  to  the  clothes  in  the  boiler,  or  borax 
may  be  used,  allowing  a  tablespoonful  to  every  gallon 
of  water.  The  borax  serves  as  a  bleacher  and  as  an 
aid  in  the  disinfection  of  the  clothes.  One  great  ad- 
vantage of  boiling  is  the  additional  disinfection  which 
this  insures. 

After  washing,  the  clothes  should  be  thoroughly  RiIMine 
rinsed.  They  cannot  be  clean  otherwise  and  proper 
rinsing  is  essential  to  successful  washing.  The  more 
thoroughly  the  wash  water  is  removed  between  rins- 
ings, the  less  number  of  rinsings  will  be  required  to 
give  the  same  results. 

Bluing  is  frequently  added  to  the  last  rinsing  water      BJ 
to  counteract,  or  cover  up,  any  yellowness.     A  light 
blue  appears  to  the  eye  whiter  than  a  light  yellow. 


70  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

The  color  is,  however,  gray  in  comparison  with  white. 
Most  of  the  liquid  bluing  now  on  the  market  contains 
Prussian  Blue,  a  compound  of  iron.  This  compound 
is  decomposed  by  soap  and  alkalies,  when  the  goods 
are  next  washed,  making  a  slight  yellow  stain  of  iron 
on  the  cloth.  Frequent  repetitions  of  this  action  may 
give  a  distinctly  yellow  shade  to  the  white  goods.  The 
indigo  blue  used  a  generation  or  more  ago  did  not 
have  this  objection.  It  is  said  that  white  goods  which 
have  never  been  blued,  never  require  bluing. 

stains  Stains  and  all  special  deposits  should  be  removed 
before  the  goods  are  treated  with  soap  or  soda,  as 
these  frequently  set  the  stains.  Hot  water  will  spread 
any  grease  and  also  set  many  stains-,  so  the  clothes 
when  not  soaked,  should  be  wet  thoroughly  in  cold 
or  hike-warm  water  before  washing. 

washing  Colored  goods  and  prints  require  more  delicate  treat- 
C Goods  ment  than  white  goods.  If  they  are  soaked,  the  water 
should  be  cold  and  contain  very  little  soap  and  no 
soda.  Only  dissolved  soap  should  be  used  in  wash- 
ing them,  and  this  should  be  of  good  quality,  free 
from  alkali.  They  should  be  dried  with  the  wrong 
side  out  and  in  the  shade,  for  direct  sunlight  fades 
colors  about  twenty  times  as  much  as  reflected  light. 

washing          All  wool  goods  require  the  greatest  care  in  wash- 
wooiens      .^    The  different  waters  used  should  be  of  the  same 

temperature  and  never  too  hot  to  be  borne  comfortably 

by  the  hand. 


82 


THE  LAUNDRY.  71 

The  soap  used  should  be  in  the  form  of  a  thin  soap  Soap 
solution.  No  soap  should  be  rubbed  on  the  fabric  and 
only  a  good,  white  soap,  free  from  rosin,  is  allow- 
able. Make  each  water  slightly  soapy  and  leave  a 
very  little  in  the  fabric  at  the  end,  to  furnish  a 
dressing  as  nearly  like  the  original  as  possible. 

Many  persons  prefer  ammonia  or  borax  in  place 
of  the  soap.  For  pure  white  flannel,  borax  gives  the 
best  satisfaction  on  account  of  its  bleaching  quality. 
Whatever  alkali  is  chosen,  care  should  be  exercised  in 
the  quantity  taken.  Only  enough  should  be  used  to 
make  the  water  very  soft. 

The  fibres  of  wool  collect  much  dust  upon  their  Brushing 
tooth-like  projections  and  this  should  be  thoroughly 
brushed  or  shaken  off  before  the  fabric  is  put  into 
water.  All  friction  should  be  by  squeezing,  not  by 
rubbing.  Wool  should  not  be  wrung  by  hand.  Either 
run  the  fabric  smoothly  through  a  wringer  or  squeeze 
the  water  out,  that  the  fibres  may  not  be  twisted. 
Wool  may  be  well  dried  by  rolling  the  article  tightly 
in  a  thick  dry  towel  or  sheet  and  squeezing  the  whole 
till  all  moisture  is  absorbed.  Wool  should  not  be  al- 
lowed to  freeze,  for  the  teeth  will  become  knotted 
and  hard.  Above  all,  the  drying  should  be  accom- 
plished quickly,  and  in  short,  the  les?  time  that  is 
taken  in  washing,  rinsing,  and  drying,  the  less  will 
be  the  shrinkage  and  the  better  will  be  the  result. 


83 


72  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

starching  Some  of  .the  clothes  are  starched.  This  in  addition 
to  making  them  stiffer  and  giving  them  a  better  ap- 
pearance helps  to  keep  them  clean  longer.  Practically 
all  the  household  starch  on  the  market  is  corn  starch, 
although  in  the  textile  industries  and  large  laundries, 
wheat,  potato  and  rice  starches  are  used.  Corn  starch 
has  the  greatest  stiffening  effect,  but  wheat  starch  and 
rice  starch  penetrate  better  and  give  a  more  flexible 
finish. 

cooked  To  make  cooked  starch  for  ordinary  work,  wet  ^ 
cup  with  Y^  cup  of  water  and  pour  on*  one  quart  of 
boiling  water.  Boil  thoroughly  till  clear.  Use  double 
the  quantity  of  starch  for  stiff  starching.  Borax  may 
be  added — J^  to  I  level  tablespoon  to  a  quart — to  in- 
crease the  gloss  and  penetrability  and  to  prevent  the 
iron  from  sticking.  Lard,  wax  or  paraffine  is  some- 
times cooked  with  "he  starch  for  the  same  purpose — 1/± 
tablespoon  to  a  quart. 

uncooked  For  very  stiff  starching,  as  for  collars,  the  thick 
paste  should  be  rubbed  thoroughly  into  the  goods  and 
the  excess  wiped  off  with  a  damp  cloth,  after  which  the 
goods  is  dried  before  a  fire. 

The  prepared  starches,  to  be  used  cold,  contain 
borax.  This  may  just  as  well  be  added  to  cheaper 
preparations.  As  the  uncooked  starch  depends  upon 
the  heat  of  the  iron  to  swell  f  and  stiffen  it,  a  hotter 
iron  is  required  than  with  boiled  starch. 

For  producing  an  ecru  shade  in  curtains,  coffee  is 
sometimes  added  in  quantity  to  give  the  desired  color. 
A  solution  of  gum  arabic  is  sometimes  used  to  stiffen 


.4  METHOD  OF  FOLDING  DRESSES,  SHIRTS  AND  SHEETS 
OR  TABLU  CLOTHS 


85 


/       I  \V  \-  v  A  « '•  I' 

^Eto 


METHOD  OF  FOLDING  UNDERCLOTHES 


ORDER  OF  IRONING 

Night  Dresses: 

1 — embroidery,    2 — sleeves,   3 — yoke,   4 — body. 
Drawers: 

1 — trimming,  2 — tucks,  3 — body,  4 — band. 
Skirts: 

1— ruffle,  2— hem,  3— body. 
Shirt  Waists: 

1— cuff,  2— collar  TDand,  3— sleeves,  4— yoke,  5— back,  6— front. 

(From   "The  Laundry,"  by  Flora  Rose;     Bulletin  of  the  Cornell   Beading 
Course  for  Farmers'  Wives,  Itbaca,  N.  Y.) 


86 


THE  LAUNDRY.  73 

dark   colored   clothes    which   would   show   the   white 
color  of  the  starch. 

THE  REMOVAL  OF  STAIN 

Whenever  possible,  stains  should  be  removed  when 
fresh.  If  the  staining  substance  is  allowed  to  dry  on 
the  cloth,  its  removal  is  always  more  difficult,  and 
sometimes  a  neglected  spot  or  stain  cannot  foe  removed 
without  damage  to  the  cloth. 

The  nature  of  the  spot  must  be  known  before  the  Grea 
best  substance  to  dissolve  and  remove  it  can  be  chosen.  Spotl 
To  remove  grease  spots,  solvents  of  grease  should 
be  chosen,  though  we  may  remove  such  spots  some- 
times by  causing  the  grease  to  form  an  emulsion  with 
soap  and  thus  be  removed,  or  the  grease  may  be  made 
into  a  soap  with  ammonia  or  washing  soda  and  thus 
dissolved  and  removed  in  water.  The  first  of  the  three 
methods  is,  as  a  rule,  the  best.  Grease  will  dissolve 
readily  in  benzine,  naphtha,  gasoline,  kerosene,  ether, 
and  chloroform  and  somewhat  in  turpentine  and  hot 
alcohol.  Ether  and  chloroform  are  the  best  solvents, 
but  they  are  more  expensive  and  not  much  more  ef- 
fective than  naphtha. 

Caution!  All  of  the  solvents  for  grease  are  in- 
flammable  and  some  are  explosive,  so  that  they  should 
never  be  used  near  a  fire  or  light.  Work  with  them 
should  be  done  in  the  day  time  and  preferably  out  of 

doors. 


87 


74  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

In  applying  any  of  these  solvents  to  grease  spots 
in  fabrics,  a  cloth  should  be  placed  underneath  the 
stain  to  absorb  the  excess  of  liquid  containing  the 
dissolved  grease.  The  spot  should  be  rubbed  from 
the  outside  towards  the  center  until  dry.  This  will 
tend  to  distribute  the  solvent  and  prevent  the  formation 
of  a  ring  where  the  liquid  stops.  It  is  well  to  apply 
the  solvent  on  the  wrong  side  of  the  fabric.  Old  spots 
of  any  kind  may  require  long  treatment.  For  this  a 
little  lard  may  be  rubbed  into  the  spot  and  left  for 
some  time,  then  the  whole  may  be  dissolved  by  naphtha 
or  washed  out  with  soap  or  ammonia. 

Absorbents  Spots  of  grease  on  carpet  Qr  heavy  material  may  be 
treated  with  absorbents.  Heat  will  assist  by  melting 
the  grease.  Fresh  grease  spots  may  often  be  removed 
by  placing  over  the  spot  a  clean  piece  of  blotting 
paper  and  pressing  the  spot  with  a  warm  iron.  French 
chalk  or  whiting  may  be  moistened  with  naphtha  and 
spread  over  the  spot.  When  all  is  dry,  brush  off  the 
absorbent.  The  absorption  method  may  be  used  in 
many  other  cases,  moistening  with  cleansing  agent 
which  will  not  harm  the  material  treated. 

Bluing  Bluing  spots  may  frequently  be  removed  by  soak- 
stains  jng  -n  strong  ammonia  water.  Alcohol  or  ammonia 
will  remove  grass  stains,  and  an  old  remedy  is  to  smear 
the  stains  with  molasses  before  the  article  goes  into 
the  wash.  The  acids  in  the  molasses  seem  to  have 
the  desired  effect  on  the  grass  stains. 


STAINS. 


75 


Fresh  stains  of  coffee,  tea  or  fruit  may  be  removed 
by  hot  water.  Stretch  the  stained  part  over  an  earth- 
en dish  and  pour  boiling  water  upon  the  stain  until  it 
disappears.  It  is  some  times  better  to  sprinkle  the 
stain  with  borax  and  soak  in  cold  water  before  ap- 
plying the  hot  water.  Old,  neglected  stains  of  coffee, 
fruits,  cocoa,  etc.,  will  have  to  be  treated  with  some 
bleaching  agent.  In  many  cases,  it  is  not  possible  to 
remove  them  without  severely  damaging  the  cloth. 

Mildew  causes  a  spot  of  a  totally  different  char- 
acter from  any  we  have  considered.  It  is  a  true  mold, 
and  like  all  plants,  requires  warmth  and  moisture  for 
its  growth.  When  this  necessary  moisture  is  furnished 
by  any  cloth  in  a  warm  place,  the  mildew  grows  upon, 
the  fibres.  During  the  first  stage  of  its  growth,  the 
mold  may  be  removed,  but  in  time,  it  destroys  the 
fibres. 

Strong  soapsuds,  a  layer  of  soft  soap,  and  pulver- 
ized chalk,  or  one  of  chalk  and  salt,  are  all  effective 
if,  in  addition,  the  moistened  cloth  be  subjected  to 
strong  sunlight,  which  kills  the  plant  and  bleaches  the 
fibres.  Bleaching  powder  or  Javelle  water  may  be 
tried  in  cases  of  advanced  growth,  but  success  cannot 
be  assured. 

Some  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  oils  may  be  taken 
out  by  soap  and  cold  water  or  dissolved  in  naphtha, 
chloroform,  ether,  etc.  Mineral  oil  stains  are  not  sol- 
uble in  any  alkaline  or  acid  solutions.  Kerosene  will 


Coffee  and 
Fruit  StaUs 


Mildew 


Vaseline    Stains 


89 


76  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

evaporate  in  time.  Vaseline  stains  should  be  soaked 
in  kerosene  before  water  and  soap  touch  them. 
Paint  Paints  consist  mainly  of  oils  and  some  colored  earth. 
Spots  of  paint,  then,  must  be  treated  with  something 
that  will  take  out  the  oil,  leaving  the  insoluble  color- 
ing matter  to  be  brushed  off.  Turpentine  is  most 
generally  useful. 

Spots  of  varnish  or  pitch  may  be  dissolved  by  the 
use  of  the  same  solvents  as  paint.  Alcohol  is  also  one 
of  the  best  solvents  here. 

Spots  made  by  food  substances  are  greasy,  sugary, 
or  acid  in  their  nature.  Whatever  takes  out  the  grease 
will  generally  remove  the  substance  united  with  it, 
as  the  blood  in  meat  juices.  Sugar  is  dissolved  by  hot 
water,  so  sticky  spots  are  best  removed  with  this, 
ink  spots  Ink  spots  are  perhaps  the  worst  that  can  be  encoun- 
tered, because  of  the  great  uncertainty  of  the  composi- 
tion of  inks  of  the  present  day.  When  the  character 
of  an  enemy  is  known,  it  is  a  comparatively  simple 
matter  to  choose  the  weapons  to  be  used  against  him, 
but  an  unknown  enemy  must  be  experimented  upon 
and  conquest  is  uncertain. 

Indelible  inks  formerly  owed  their  permanence  to 

Indelible 

Ink  silver  nitrate.  Now  many  are  made  from  aniline  black 
solutions  and  are  scarcely  aftected  by  any  chemicals. 
The  silver  nitrate  inks  become  dark  in  the  sun  by  a 
photographic  process.  Many  silver  salts,  and  some 
salts  of  other  metals,  change  in  color  in  a  bright  light. 


90 


STAINS.  77 

Silver  nitrate  inks  may  be  removed  by  bleaching 
powder  solutions.  The  chlorine  in  this  replaces  the 
nitric  acid  forming  white  silver  chloride.  This  will 
darken  if  not  at  once  removed,  but  will  dissolve  in 
strong  ammonia  water  or  a  solution  of  hyposulphite  of 
soda.  This  last  salt,  much  used  by  photographers, 
commonly  called  "hypo,"  will  often  dissolve  the  stain  of 
indelible  ink  without  the  use  of  the  bleaching  fluid 
and  is  less  harmful  to  the  fibres.  Some  inks  contain 
carbon  in  the  form  of  lamp  black  which  is  not  affected 
by  any  chemicals  which  can  be  used. 

The  old  fashioned  black  ink  is  a  compound  called 
the  gallo-tannate  of  iron.  It  is  made  by  adding  a  solu- 
tion of  sulphate  of  iron  to  a  water  solution  of  nut 
galls.  A  little  gum  solution  is  added  to  make  the  ink. 
of  better  consistency.  This  kind  of  ink  is  removed 
by  the  addition  of  a  warm  solution  of  oxalic  acid 
or  muriatic  acid  drop  by  drop,  and  this  finally  well 
rinsed  out.  Of  course  some  materials  will  be  injured 
by  the  acids,  so  this  method  must  be  used  with  cau- 
tion. Lemon  juice  and  salt  will  sometimes  remove 
the  spot  and  is  safe.  Cover  the  spot  with  salt,  wet  with 
lemon  juice,  and  spread  in  the  sun.  Bleaching  powder 
solution  and  acid  will  frequently  destroy  any  ink  stain 
of  long  standing  which  acids  alone  will  not  affect. 

Some  ink  stains  are  removed  when  fresh  by  clear, 
cold,  or  tepid  water — skimmed  miik  is  safe  and  often 
effective.  If  the  stain  is  allowed  to  soak  in  the  milk 


91 


?8  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

until  the  milk  sours,  the  result  is  often  better.  Some- 
times the  ink  will  dissolve  out  if  a  piece  of  ice  is  laid 
on  the  spot  and  blotting  paper  under  it.  The  blotting 
paper  absorbs  the  water  and  should  be  often  changed. 

ink  on  Ink  on  heavy  materials  like  carpets  and  draperies 
may  be  treated  with  some  absorbent  to  keep  the  ink 
from  spreading.  Bits  of  blotting  paper,  cotton  batting, 
meal,  flour,  sawdust,  etc.,  may  be  used  and  removed 
as  long  as  any  ink  is  absorbed,  then  go  over  the  spot 
repeatedly  with  a  lemon  freshly  cut,  and  finally  rinse 
with  cold  or  tepid  water.  If  an  ink  stain  has  worked 
through  varnish  into  the  wood,  turpentine  will  usually 
remove  the  spot. 

Colored  Of  late  colored  inks  are  generally  prepared  from 
Inks  aniline  colors.  These  are  made  from  substances  pro- 
duced in  the  distillation  of  coal  tar.  The  colors  are 
soluble  in  water,  and  by  dissolving  them  and  adding 
to  the  mixture  some  thickening  substance,  different 
colored  inks  are  produced.  They  are  rather  difficult 
to  remove  successfully,  but  bleaching  powder  solution 
will  frequently  destroy  them. 

iron  The  red  iron-rust  spots  must  be  treated  with  acid. 
These  are  the  results  o'f  oxidation — the  union  of  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  with  the  iron  in  the  presence  of  mois- 
ture. The  oxide  formed  is  deposited  upon  the  fabric 
which  furnishes  the  moisture.  Ordinary  "tin"  uten- 
sils are  made  from  iron  coated  with  tin,  which  soon 
wears  off,  so  no  moist  fabric  should  be  left  long  in  tin 
unless  the  surface  is  entire. 


STAINS. 


79 


Iron-rust  is,  then,  an  insoluble  oxide  of  iron.  The 
chloride  of  iron  is  soluble  and  so  hydrochloric  acid  is 
used  to  remove  the  rust.  The  best  method  of  apply- 
ing the  acid  is  as  follows :  Fill  an  earthen  dish  two- 
thirds  full  of  hot  water  and  stretch  the  stained  cloth 
over  this.  Have  near  two  other  dishes  with  clear 
water  in  one  and  ammonia  water  in  the  other.  The 
steam  from  the  hot  water  wall  furnish  the  heat  and 
moisture  favorable  for  chemical  action.  Drop  a  little 
hydrochloric  (muriatic)  acid  on  the  stain  with  a  medi- 


Removinf 
Rust 


FIG.    19.     REMOVING    IRON    RUST    STAIN. 

cine  dropper.  Fig.  19.  Let  it  act  a  moment,  then 
lower  the  cloth  into  the  hot  water.  Repeat  till  the 
stain  disappears.  Rinse  carefully  in  the  clear  water 
and,  finally,  immerse  in  the  ammonia  water,  that  any 
excess  of  acid  may  be  neutralized  and  the  fabric  pro- 
tected. 

Salt  and  lemon  juice  are  often  sufficient  for  a  slight 
stain,  probably  because  a  little  hydrochloric  acid  is 
formed  from  their  union. 


Salt  and 
Lemon  Juice 


93 


8o  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

Ink  stains  on  colored  goods  are  often  impossible 
to  take  out  without  also  removing  part  of  the  dye.  The 
ink  must  be  washed  out  in  cold  water  before  it  dries ; 
any  slight  stain  remaining  can,  perhaps,  be  removed 
with  a  weak  acid  like  lemon  juice  without  harming 
the  color. 

BLEACHING 

When  the  clothes  are  washed,  the  mistress  likes 
to  have  them  hang  out  of  doors  where  the  air  and 
sunshine  can  dry  them.  She  is  glad  when  the  white 
articles  can  be  spread  on  the  grass,  knowing  that  they 
will  be  made  whiter  by  Nature's  bleaching  agent. 
The  sunlight  is  the  chief  agent  in  this  bleaching  and  the 
articles  are  laid  flat  on  the  grass  so  that  the  rays  of 
light  will  strike  in  a  more  perpendicular  direction. 
There  are  also  other  devices  for  bleaching,  among 
which  are  the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur,  chloride  of 
lime  (bleaching  powder)  and  Javelle  water. 

Originally-  all  bleaching  of  linen  and  cotton  was 
done  out  of  doors  by  the  action  of  oxygen,  water,  and 
sunlight.  In  these  days  of  great  factories,  this  process 
is  impossible  for  lack  of  space;  but  various  artificial 
bleaching  stuffs  have  been  discovered  whose  action  is 
satisfactory  if  skilfully  used. 

Bleaching         Chlorine  is  a  gas  which  has  remarkable  readiness  to 
powder     combine  with  other  bodies.    It  is  even  more  energetic 
than  oxygen.     By  its  action  upon  them,  chlorine  de- 
stroys the  greater  number  of  coloring  substances.    Be- 


94 


BLEACHING.  81 

cause  of  its  harmful  action  upon  the  human  body, 
chlorine  gas  itself  cannot  be  used  in  factories  or  in  the 
household,  but  the  compound  which  chlorine  forms 
with  lime,  (oxide  of  calcium)  known  as  chloride  of 
lime  or  bleaching  powder,  is  safe  and  effective. 

The  principal  coloring  matters  are  composed  chiefly  Action  of 
of  the  elements  carbon  and  hydrogen  and  some  of  the 
metals,  If  a  substance  which  makes  new  combination 
with  the  elements  present  is  brought  in  contact  with 
these  colors,  the  new  compounds  thus  produced  may 
be  colorless.  The  element  chlorine  does  just  this. 
It  can  be  set  free  from  chloride  of  lime  by  weak  acids, 
and  will  dissolve  very  readily  ;n  water  when  so  set 
free.  By  dipping  colored  cloth  into  a  weak  solution 
of  chloride  of  lime  and  acid,  many  colors  and  stains 
are  at  once  destroyed.  But  the  energy  of  the  chlorine 
is  not  stopped  by  this  process.  Having  destroyed 
the  color,  the  bleaching  powder  attacks  the  fibres  of 
the  goods,  unles:  the  cloth  is  at  once  placed  in  some 
solution  which  can  neutralize  the  bleaching  powder. 
There  are  several  such  easily  obtained  and  used.  The 
use  of  bleaching  powder  in  the  household  is  frequently 
of  dubious  success  for  lack  of  this  precaution.  Am- 
monia water  will  perform  this  action  satisfactorily, 
since  the  harmless  soluble  salt,  ammonium  chloride, 
is  formed ;  hypo-sulphite  of  soda  is  also  effective. 

Chloride  of  lime  loses  strength  rapidly  if  exposed       chloride 
in  an  open  vessel.     It  absorbs  water  and  carbon  di-      of  Lime 


95 


82  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

oxide  from  the  air,  grows  damp  and  the  chlorine  gas 
escapes. 

In  using  bleaching  powder,  mix  one  or  two  tea- 
spoonfuls  with  a  pint  of  cold  water  in  an  earthen- 
ware dish.  The  effective  part  of  the  powder  will  be 
dissolved,  so  let  the  mixture  settle,  or  strain  off  the 
liquid  through  a  cloth.  Add  a  little  vinegar  or  a  few 
drops  of  acetic  acid  to  the  nearly  clear  solution  and 
use  at  once. 

Javelle  water  is  also  used  as  a  bleaching  agent.  It  is 
water  yerv  j-j^  ^ieaciimg  powder,  except  that  soda  replaces 
the  lime.  It  is  prepared  by  dissolving  one  pound  of 
washing  soda  in  a  quart  of  hot  water  and  adding  one 
quarter  of  a  pound  of  chloride  of  lime  also  dissolved 
in  a  quart  of  hot  water.  Let  the  mixture  settle,  pour 
off  the  clear  liquid  and  bottle  it  for  use.  It  will  keep 
for  some  time.  The  dregs  may  be  used  to  scour 
the  kitchen  floor  or  to  disinfect  waste  pipes.  This  is 
very  useful  in  removing  stains  on  white  cloth,  but 
the  addition  of  some  solution  to  neutralize  the  action 
is  always  necessary,  just  as  with  bleaching  powder. 
The  best  substance  to  use  for  this  is  hypo-sulphite  of 
soda,  the  "hypo"  used  in  photography,  which  is  quite 
harmless  to  the  cloth. 

sulphur  Chlorine  cannot  be  used  in  bleaching  fabrics  of  ani- 
mal  fibre  sucn  as  wool  and  silk ;  it  leaves  them  yellow 
rather  than  white.  For  these  the  fumes  of  burning 
sulphur,  or  these  fumes  dissolved  in  water  must  be 


BLEACHING.  83 

used.  No  special  means  of  destroying  the  excess  of 
sulphur  fumes  is  required.  These  fumes  are  a  com- 
pound of  sulphur  and  the  oxygen  of  the  air  and  famil- 
iar to  every  one,  in  the  acid  fumes  from  a  burning 
"sulphur  match."  The  article  to  be  bleached  must  be 
wet,  and  then  hung  in  some  enclosed  space  above  a 
piece  of  burning  sulphur.  The  sulphur  candles,  to  be 
had  at  any  druggist's,  are  convenient  for  this  use. 
Fig.  20.  The  fumes  have  great  affinity  for  oxygen, 
that  is,  unite  with  it  easily,  and  take  it  from  the  color- 
ing stuffs,  converting  them  into  colorless  ones.  This 
method  of  bleaching  is  sometimes  not  permanent. 


FIG.   20.     A    SULPHUR    CANDLE. 

These  fumes  of  sulphur  are  often  used  to  disinfect 
rooms  where  there  has  been  sickness.  Its  power  in 
this  respect  is  far  less  than  is  generally  supposed  how- 
ever, and  much  larger  quantities  of  the  gas  are  re- 
quired for  thorough  work  than  are  commonly  used. 
Chlorine  gas  is  an  excellent  disinfectant,  but  is  dan- 
gerous to  use  because  of  its  irritating  effect  upon  the 
throat  and  lungs.  The  use  of  "chloride  of  lime"  as  a 
disinfectant  depends  upon  the  fact  that  chlorine  slowly 


97 


Hydrogen 
Peroxide 


Alkalies 
on  Paint 


84  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

escapes  from  this  substance  when  it  is  exposed  to  the 
air. 

Another  bleaching  agent  of  growing  importance 
is  peroxide  of  hydrogen.  Water  is  a  compound  made 
up  of  one-third  oxygen  and  two-thirds  hydrogen.  Un- 
der certain  conditions,  a  compound  half  oxygen  and 
half  hydrogen  may  be  prepared.  This  is  not  very 
permanent  as  the  extra  oxygen  slowly  escapes.  This 
extra  oxygen  has  great  power  as  a  decolorizer.  The 
peroxide  is  a  liquid  much  like  water  in  appearance 
and  is  used  in  bleaching  hair,  feathers,  and  ivory.  It 
is  the  safest  bleaching  agent  for  the  housekeeper  to 
work  with  and  may  be  used  on  wool  and  silk  as  well 
as  cotton  and  linen. 

CLEANING  WOODWORK 

111  the  interior  of  the  house  woods  are  seldom  used 
in  their  natural  state.  The  surface  is  covered  with 
two  or  more  coatings  of  paint,  varnish,  etc.,  which 
add  to  the  wood  durability  or  beauty.  The  cleaning 
processes  are  applied  to  the  last  coat  of  finish  and 
must  not  injure  this. 

Soft  woods  are  finished  with  paint,  stain,  oil,  shel- 
lac, varnish,  or  with  two  or  more  of  these  combined; 
hardwoods  with  any  of  these,  and  in  addition,  wax,  or 
wax  with  turpentine,  or  both  with  oil. 

All  these  surfaces,  except  those  finished  with  wax, 
may  be  cleaned  with  a  weak  solution  of  soap  or  am- 
monia, but  the  continuous  use  of  any  alkali  may  im- 


98 


CLEANING.  85 

pair  and  finally  remove  the  polish.  Refinishing  will 
then  be  necessary.  Waxed  surfaces  are  turned  dark 
by  water.  Finished  surfaces  should  never  be  scoured 
nor  cleaned  with  strong  alkalies,  like  sal-soda,  or  potash 
soaps.  Scouring  with  these  strong  alkalies  will  break 
the  paint  or  varnish  and  in  this  way  destroy  the  finish. 

A  few  drops  of  kerosene  or  turpentine  on  a  soft 
cloth  may  be  used  to  clean  all  polished  surfaces.  The 
latter  cleans  them  more  perfectly  and  evaporates  read- 
ily; the  former  is  cheaper,  safer,  because  its  vapor  is 
not  so  inflammable  as  that  of  turpentine,  and  it  pol- 
ishes a  little  while  it  cleans ;  but  it  evaporates  so 
slowly  that  the  surface  must  be  rubbed  dry  each  time, 
or  the  dust  will  be  collected  and  retained.  The  harder 
the  rubbing,  the  higher  the  polish. 

Outside  the  kitchen,  the  woodwork  of  the  house  sel- 
dom needs  scrubbing.  The  greasy  layer  is  readily 
dissolved  by  weak  alkaline  solutions,  by  kerosene  or 
turpentine,  while  the  imbedded  dust  is  wiped  away  by 
the  cloth.  Polished  surfaces  keep  clean  longest.  If  the 
finish  be  removed  or  broken  by  deep  scratches,  the 
wood  itself  absorbs  the  grease  and  dust,  and  the  stain 
may  have  to  be  scraped  out. 

CLEANING  METALS 

Most  metals  may  be  washed  without  harm  in  a  hot 
alakline  solution  or  wiped  with  a  little  kerosene. 
Stoves  and  iron  sinks  may  be  scoured  with  the  coarser 
materials  like  ashes,  emery  or  pumice ;  but  copper,  pol- 


99 


86  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

ished  steel,  or  the  soft  metals,  tin,  silver,  and  alumi- 
num require  a  fine  powder  that  they  may  not  be 
scratched  or  worn  away  too  rapidly.  Metal  bathtubs 
may  be  kept  clean  and  bright  with  whiting  and  am- 
monia, if  rinsed  with  boiling  hot  water  and  wiped  dry 
with  soft  flannel  or  chamois. 

Porcelain  or  soapstone  may  be  washed  like  metal 
or  scoured  with  any  fine  material. 

T^mish  The  special  deposits  on  metals  are  caused  by  the 
oxygen  and  moisture  of  the  air,  by  the  presence  of 
other  gases  in  the  house,  or  by  acids  or  corroding 
liquids.  Such  deposits  come  under  the  general  head 
of  tarnish. 

The  metals,  or  their  compounds,  in  common  use 
are  silver,  copper  and  brass,  iron  and  steel,  tin,  zinc 
and  nickel.  Aluminum  is  rapidly  taking  a  prominent 
place  in  the  manufacture  of  household  utensils. 

There  is  little  trouble  with  the  general  greasy  film 
or  with  the  special  deposits  on  articles  in  daily  use,  if 
they  are  washed  in  hot  water  and  soap,  rinsed  well  and 
wiped  dry  each  time.  Yet  certain  articles  of  food  act 
upon  the  metal  of  tableware  and  cooking  utensils, 
forming  true  chemical  salts. 

silver  The  sa^ts  °f  silver  are  usually  dark  colored  and 
Sulphide  insoluble  in  water  or  in  any  alkaline  liquid  which  will 
not  also  dissolve  the  silver.  Whether  found  in  the 
products  of  combustion,  in  food,  as  eggs,  in  the  paper 
or  cloth  used  for  wrapping,  in  the  rubber  band  of  a 
fruit  jar,  or  the  rubber  elastic  which  may  be  near  the 


100 


METALS.  87 

silver,  sulphur  forms  with  silver  a  grayish  black  com- 
pound—a sulphide  of  silver.  All  the  silver  sulphides 
are  insoluble  in  water.  Rub  such  tarnished  articles, 
before  washing,  with  common  salt.  By  replacement, 
silver  chloride,  a  white  chemical  salt,  is  formed,  which 
is  soluble  in  ammonia.  If  the  article  be  not  washed  in 
ammonia  it  will  soon  turn  dark  again.  With  an  old  or 
deep  stain  of  silver  sulphide  friction  must  be  used. 

The  analysis  of  many  samples  of  silver  polish, 
showed  them  to  be  made  up  of  either  precipitated 
chalk,  diatomaceous  earth  or  fine  sand.  In  using  them, 
it  is  necessary  to  be  careful  in  regard  to  the  fineness 
of  material  since  a  few  coarse  grains  will  scratch  the 
coating  of  soft  silver.  In  former  times  the  housewife 
bought  a  pound  of  whiting  for  fifteen  cents,  sifted  it 
through  fine  cloth,  or,  mixing  it  with  water,  floated  off 
the  finer  portion,  and  obtained  in  this  way,  twelve 
ounces  of  the  same  material  for  three  ounces  of  which 
the  modern  housewife  pays  twenty-five  cents  or  even 
more,  when  she  buys  it  "by  the  box." 

The  whiting  may  be  made  into  a  paste  with  ammonia 
or  alcohol,  the  article  coated  with  this  and  left  till  the 
liquid  has  evaporated.  Then  the  powder  should  be 
rubbed  off  with  soft  tissue  paper  or  soft  cotton  cloth, 
and  polished  with  chamois. 

The  presence  of  water  always  favors  chemical 
change.  Therefore  iron  and  steel  rapidly  oxidize  in 
damp  air  or  in  the  presence- of  moisture.  All  metallic 
article5  m?y  be  protected  from  such  action  by  a  thin 


Silver 
Polish 


Whiting 


Protecting 
Metals 


101 


88  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

oily  coating.  Iron  and  steel  articles  not  in  use  may  be 
covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  vaseline. 

Rust  can  be  removed  from  iron  or  steel  by  kerosene, 
if  not  too  deep. 

The  tarnish  on  brass  or  copper  will  dissolve  in  am- 
monia water,  but  the  objects  tarnish  again  more  quick- 
ly than  if  polished  by  friction. 


102 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

PART  II. 


Read  Carefully.  Place  your  name  and  address  on  the  first 
sheet  of  the  test.  Use  a  light  grade  of  paper  and  write  on  one 
side  of  the  sheet  only.  Do  not  copy  answers  from  the  lesson 
paper.  Use  your  own  words,  so  that  your  instructor  may  know 
that  you  understand  the  subject.  Read  the  lesson  paper  a  num- 
ber of  times  before  attempting  to  answer  the-  questions. 


1.  Name  all  the  substances  you  can  think  of  which 

are  not  soluble  in  water  and  are  soluble  in  naph- 
tha or  benzine. 

2.  Does  sugar  neutralize  acid  chemically?     Why? 

3.  How  is  soap  made?     What  is  the  difference  be- 

tween hard  and  soft  soap? 

4.  What  is  "hard"  water?     How  does  it  act  with 

soap?     How  is  it  softened? 

5.  Explain  how  "bluing"  may  make  white  clothes 

yellow. 

6.  Why  remove   stains  when   fresh?    Why  before 

washing  ? 

7.  Why  is  there  danger  in  using  naphtha,  benzine, 

and  to  some  extent  alcohol  near  a  light  ? 

8.  How  do  cotton  and  woolen  differ  in  the  effect  of 

acids  and  alkalies  upon  them? 


103 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

9.  What  precautions  must  be  taken  in  bleaching  or 
removing  stains  with  chloride  of  lime  solution 
or  with  Javelle  water? 

10.  Give  a  g.ood  method  of  starching  and  ironing 

clothes. 

11.  If  possible,  try  to  remove  some  stain  by  a  method 

given  in  this  lesson  and  tell  of  the  results. 

12.  Describe  a  good  method  of  washing  woolens. 

13.  Why  does  the  drying  of  a  little  acid  or  alkali  On  a 

fabric  have  a  very  disastrous  effect  ? 

14.  What  is  your  method  of  washing  dishes  ? 

15.  What  can  you  say  of  acids,  alkalies,  salts? 

16.  What  is   "washing  soda?"     How  should  it   be 

used  ?    When  should  it  not  be  used  ? 

17.  Why  does  strong  soap  or  washing  soda  harm 

varnish  or  paint? 

18.  What  is  the  cause  of  tarnish  on  metals?    How 

can  it  be  removed  and  prevented  ? 

19.  What  advantages  has  ammonia  for  use  in  the 

laundry  ? 

20.  Do  you  understand  everything  given  in  this  .les- 

son paper  ?    Are  there  any  questions  you  would 
like  to  have  answered? 
NJTE. — After  completing  the  test  aign  jour  full  name. 


104 


CHEMISTRY   OF    THE    HOUSEHOLD. 


A  Day's  Chemistry. 
PART  III. 


CHEMISTRY  OF  BAKING  POWDER 

We  will  suppose  that  after  the  strenuous  course  of 
cooking,  washing,  and  cleaning  outlined  for  the  morn- 
ing, that  the  housekeeper  still  has  strength  to  make 
soda  biscuits  for  tea,  and  we  will  study  the  chemical 
action  involved. 

One  of  the  first  chemical  methods  of  securing  car- 
bon dioxide  to  use  in  making  bread  rise,  was  by  putting 
hydrochloric  acid  and  cooking  soda  together  in  a  dough 
which  might  be  put  into  the  oven  before  the  gas  es- 
caped from  it. 

Cooking  soda  is  a  salt  called  bi-carbonate  of  sodium.  cooking 
It  differs  from  the  ordinary  mono-carbonate  of  soda 
(washing  soda)  in  yielding  twice  as  much  carbon  diox- 
ide in  proportion  to  the  sodium  part  of  the  compound. 
The  saleratus  of  our  grandmother's  time  was  bi-car- 
bonate of  potash,  made  from  wood  ashes.  The  name 
is  still  used,  but  at  all  stores,  cooking  soda  would  be 
delivered  invariably  if  saleratus  were  asked  for.  The 
true  saleratus  costs  ten  times  as  much  as  the  soda  and 
is  no  more  effective.  The  carbonic  acid  is  easily  set 
free  by  chemical  compounds  of  an  acid  nature,  and 
new  chemical  compounds  result. 


105 


Heating 

Cooking 

Soda 


Early 
Experiments 


QO  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

Experiment.  Put  a  little  cooking  soda  into  any 
acid — lemon  juice,  vinegar,  almost  any  fruit  juice — 
and  the  carbon  dioxide  will  be  seen  to  escape  in  tiny 
bubbles.  Part  of  the  acid  unites  with  part  of  the  soda, 
forming  a  new  salt,  and  the  acid  taste  will  be  much 
reduced  or  lost. 

Part  of  the  carbon  dioxide  in  sodium  bi-carbonate 
is  driven  off  by  simply  heating,  leaving  ordinary 
sodium  mono-carbonate,  washing  soda.  In  using  this 
process,  cooking  soda  is  mixed  with  the  flour.  The 
high  temperature  of  the  oven  drives  off  carbon  dioxide, 
and  the  bread  puffs  up.  It  is  light,  but  yellow  in 
color.  The  sodium  carbonate  remains  in  the  bread 
and  its  alkaline  nature  serves  to  neutralize  the  acid 
fluids  of  the  stomach  (gastric  juice)  so  that  digestion 
of  the  bread  may  be  retarded.  The  sodium  carbonate 
also  acts  in  some  way  upon  the  gluten  producing  an 
unpleasant  odor. 

Among  the  first  methods  proposed  was  one  undoubt- 
edly the  best  theoretically,  but  very  difficult  to  put  in 
practice.  This  depended  upon  the  liberation  of  carbon 
dioxide  from  bi-carbonate  of  sodium  by  means  of 
muriatic  acid — the  method  already  described.  The 
liberation  of  gas  is  instantaneous  on  the  contact  of 
the  acid  with  the  "soda"  and  even  a  skilled  hand  can- 
not mix  the  bread  and  place  it  in  the  oven  without  the 
loss  of  much  of  the  gas.  Tartaric  acid,  the  acid  phos- 
phates, sour  milk  (lactic  acid),  vinegar  (acetic  acid).. 


106 


BAKING  POWDER.  gi 

alum,  all  of  which  hav  been  used,  are  open  to  the 
same  objection. 

Cream  of  tartar  is  the  only  acid  substance  commonly 
used  which  does  not  liberate  the  gas  by  simple  con- 
tact in  cold  solution.  It  unites  with  "soda"  only  when 
heated,  because  it  is  so  slightly  soluble  in  cold  water. 

Experiment.  To  illustrate  this  stir  a  little  soda  and 
"cream  of  tartar"  into  some  cold  water  in  a  cup.  Ii? 
another  cup  mix  the  same  amounts  of  each  in  warm 
water.  Note  the  difference  in  the  action  produced. 

To  obtain  an  even  distribution  of  the  gas  by  thorough 
mixing,  cream  of  tartar  would  seem  to  be  the  best 
medium  by  which  to  add  the  acid,  but  because  there  are 
other  products  which  remain  behind  in  the  bread  in 
using  all  the  so-called  baking  powders,  the  healthful- 
ness  of  these  residues  must  be  considered. 

Common  salt  is  the  safest  residue  and  perhaps  that 
from  acid  phosphate  is  next  in  order. 

The  tartrate,  lactate,  and  acetate  of  sodium  are  not 
known  to  be  especially  hurtful.  As  the  important 
constituent  of  Seidlitz  powders  is  Rochelle  salt,  the 
same  compound  as  that  resulting  from  the  use  of 
cream  of  tartar  and  "soda,"  it  is  not  likely  to  be  very 
harmful,  even  in  the  case  of  the  habitual  "soda  bis- 
cuit" eater,  because  of  the  small  quantities  taken. 

The  various  products  formed  by  the  chemical  de- 
composition of  the  alum  and  "soda"  are  possibly  the 
most  injurious,  as  these  are  sulphates,  and  are  thought 


Cream  of 
Tartar 


Injurious 
Products 


107 


92  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

to  be  the  least  readily  absorbed  salts.  The  sale  of 
•fc  "alum"  baking  powder  is  increasing,  as  it  is  cheaper. 
Taking  into  consideration  then  the  advantage  given 
by  the  insolubility  of  cream  of  tartar  in  cold  water, 
and  the  comparatively  little  danger  from  its  derivative 
— Rochelle  salt — it  would  seem  to  be,  on  the  whole,  the 
best  substance  to  add  to  the  soda  in  order  to  liberate 
the  gas,  but  the  proportions  should  be  chemically  ex- 
act, since  too  much  alkali  would  hinder  the  process  of 
digestion.  Hence  baking  powders  prepared  by  weight 
and  carefully  mixed,  are  a  great  improvement  over 
cream  of  tartar  and  "soda"  measured  separately.  As 
commonly  used,  the  proportion  of  soda  should  be  a 
little  less  than  half. 

LIGHTING 

By  the  time  supper  is  over  or  even  before,  during  a 
large  portion  of  the  year  daylight  has  gone.  Our 
grandmothers  would  have  brought  out  the  candles. 
Perhaps  we  shall  use  a  candle  to  light  our  way  while 
we  carry  the  butter  and  food  into  the  cool  cellar. 
The  candle  The  candle  flame  although  small  in  area  is  typical  of 
all  flames.  Flame  indicates  the  burning  of  a  gas  for 
solid  substances  in  burning  simply  glow  and  do  not 
burn  with  flame.  When  wocd  and  soft  coal  burn, 
gases  are  set  free  by  heat  and  these  gases  burn  over  the 
bed  of  fuel,  giving  the  flames. 

The  general  form  of  the  candle  flame  is  a  cone 
widest  above  the  base,  or  about  at  the  top  of  the  wick. 
If  it  is  examined  carefully  it  will  be  seen  to  consist 


108 


LIGHTING. 


93 


of  three  layers.  Fig.  21.  The  interior  part  is  dark, 
giving  out  no  light.  The  second  is  yellow  and  is  the 
luminous  part,  and  surrounding  this  and  most  easily 
seen  at  the  base,  is  a  very  thin  blue  layer. 

Experiment.  If  a  small  splint  of  wood  or  a  match 
be  placed  across  the  lower  part  of  the  flame  near  the 
wick  for  a  moment,  it  will  be  charred-  where  the  outer 
layers  of  the  flame  have  touched  it,  but  the  centre  will 
not  be  changed.  Press  a  piece  of  card  board  quickly 
down  on  the  flame  from  above 
and  remove  it  before  it  is  set  on 
fire,  and  a  ring  of  scorched  paper 
will  show  the  shape  of  the  hot 
part  of  the  flame. 

The  candle  consists  of  hydro- 
carbons ("compounds  of  carbon 
and  hydrogen).  When  a  match  is 
applied  to  the  wick,  the  hydrocar- 
bons are  melted  and  the  liquid 
rises  on  the  wick  by  capillary  at- 
traction. The  heat  changes  this  to 

Fig.     21.     Flame    of    a 

gas  (or  vapor)  which  is  set  on  fire,  candle, 

since  at  the  high  temperature  it  easily  unites  with  the 
oxygen  of  the  air.  There  is  plenty  of  oxygen  present, 
but  it  is  all  seized  upon  by  the  carbon  and  hydrogen 
in  the  outer  parts  of  the  column  of  gas  rising  from  the 
wick,  so  that  none  reaches  the  centre.  The  gas  diffuses 
outward  toward  the  oxygen  continually,  so  that  the 
innei  cone  may  be  regarded  as  a  gas  factory.  The  yel- 


Chemistry 
of  the 
Candle  Flame 


109 


94 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 


Nature 
of  Smoke 


Explosions 


Explosive 
Mixtures 


low  light  is  caused  by  the  incandescence  or  glowing  of 
small  particles  of  carbon,  heated  to  "white  heat." 
These  are  set  free  from  the  compounds  where  the  flame 
is  very  hot  and  they  are  not  yet  united  with  oxygen. 

Flames  "smoke,"  that  is,  throw  off  unburned  car- 
bon when  there  is  an  insufficient  supply  of  oxygen. 
Any  device  which  constantly  renews  a  steady  supply  of 
air  (with  oxygen)  will  make  the  flame  burn  better. 
The  chimney  of  a  lamp  does  this  by  protecting  the 
flame  from  wind  and  by  making,  enclosing,  and  direct- 
ing upward  a  current  of  air.  The  chimney  makes 
the  lamp  "draw,"  as  the  chimney  of  the  house  makes 
the  stove  "draw." 

When  the  air  is  mixed  with  an  inflammable  gas  and 
the  temperature  of  any  part  is  raised  to  the  kindling 
point  of  the  gas,  as  happens  if  a  light  is  brought  into 
such  a  mixture,  an  explosion  takes  place.  The  flame 
spreads  through  the  whole  and  combination  ensues 
everywhere  almost  instantly.  Great  heat  is  produced 
and  the  gases  expand  suddenly  and  with  violence.  If 
the- gases  are  confined,  the  enclosing  walls  may  be 
broken  by  the  pressure.  Contraction  follows  this  ex- 
pansion and  air  rushes  in,  producing  a  second  sound. 
The  sounds  occur  so  near  together  as  to  give  the  im- 
pression of  one. 

In  a  mixture  of  inflammable  gas  and  air  there  must 
be  a  certain  proportion  of  each  to  give  conditions  which 
will  produce  an  explosion.  A  very  small  amount  of 
gas  in  the  air  will  not  explode  under  any  conditions, 


no 


LIGHTING. 


95 


as  when  there  is  an  odor  of  coal  gas  in  the  room  from 
which  no  explosion  follows  even  though  a  light  be 
present.  On  the  other  hand,  a  mixture  containing  a 
large  proportion  of  inflammable  gas  and  a  little  air 
will  not  explode.  The  proportion  of  air  to  gas  in  an 
explosive  mixture  varies  in  different  cases,  but  in  gen- 
eral ranges  from  about  twelve  to  five  parts  of  air  to  one 


Fig.  22a.    Tho  Effect  of  Wire  Gauze  on  n  Gas  Flame. 

part  of  gas.  It  is,  of  course,  never  safe  to  rely  on  the 
chance  of  the  correct  proportions  of  gas  and  air  not  be- 
ing present. 

Explosions  sometimes  occur  by  unwise  use  of  kero- 
sene in  kindling  a  fire  in  a  stove.  If  the  kerosene  is 
poured  upon  a  fire  already  burning,  enough  vapor  of 
kerosene  may  be  produced  to  give  a  disastrous  explo- 
sion. Soaking  wood  or  paper  in  kerosene  for  use  as 
kindlings  and  then  lighting  would  produce  no  such 
dire  results. 


ill 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  PIOUS  EH  OLD. 


Safety 
Lamps 


Kerosene 
Lamps 


Explosions  in  mines  are  usually  caused  by  a  ga» 
called  fire-damp  and  composed  of  carbon  and  hydrogen. 
When  this  escapes  from  the  coal  and  becomes  mixed 
with  air,  it  is  very  explosive.  If  a  miner  brings  a 
naked  flame  into  the  mine,  the  fire-damp  will  ignite 
and  disaster  results.  A  safety  lamp  was  devised  by 
Davy  for  use  in  such  dangerous  places.  It  was  found 
that  a  gas  is  cooled  below  its  kindling  temperature  in 
passing  through  a  fine  wire  gauze. 
Lamps  surrounded  by  such  a  gauze  may 
be  taken  into  a  mine  with  comparative 
safety.  Fig.  22. 

The  action  of  the  wire  gauze  upon  the 
gas  may  be  studied  by  holding  over  a 
gas  jet  a  piece  of  fine  wire  netting,  such 
as  is  used  in  window  screens,  and  then 
lighting  the  gas  above  the  netting.  Fig. 
22a.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  gas  below 

Fig  22  ^e   noting"    is    verv    slow '  m    igniting, 

since  it  does  not  readily  become  sufficiently  heated,  the 
wire  netting  cooling  it  below  its  kindling  point. 

The  kerosene  lamp  gives  light  by  the  principle 
already  described.  The  reservoir  o£  the  lamp  corre- 
sponds to  the  cup  of  melted  tallow  at  the  top  of  the 
candle.  The  oil  is  drawn  to  the  top  of  the  wick  by 
capillary  attraction,  where  the  hear  vaporizes  it ;  so 
that  vapor  and  not  oil  is  what  really  burns.  The  struc- 
ture of  the  flame  is  precisely  like  that  of  the  candle, 
although  its  shape  differs,  because  of  the  shape  of  the 
wick. 


112 


LIGHTING.  97 

Illuminating  gas  is  today  the  source  of  light  in  most 
city  houses.  There  are  two  kinds  of  gas  now  fur- 
nished for  this  purpose.  Coal  gas  is  obtained  from 
the  destructive  distillation  of  soft  coal.  Receivers 
or  retorts  of  iron  or  fire  clay  are  filled  with  soft  coal 
and  heated  to  1 100°  or  more.  From  these  retorts  tubes 
lead  up  into  a  large  pipe  called  the  hydraulic  main, 


FIG.    23.     MANUFACTURING    OF   COAL   GAS. 

through  which  water  is  kept  flowing.  As  the  coal  be- 
comes heated,  a  number  of  different  substances  are 
given  off,  which  at  this  high  temperature  are  in  the 
gaseous  state.  Some  of  them  dissolve  in  the  water 
of  the  hydraulic  main,  but  those  needed  for  illuminat- 
ing gas  are  not  soluble  and  passing  out  of  the  main, 
they  travel  through  several  hundred  feet  of  vertical 
pipe  called  the  condenser,  where  more  water  removes 
any  impurities  which  may  have  escaped  from  the 
hydraulic  main. 


Coal   Gas 


Distillation 
of  Coal 


113 


98 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 


Purifying 
Coal  Gas 


Aniline 


Water    Gas 


The  gases  are  then  passed  on  through  numerous 
other  devices  to  remove  remaining  traces  of  impurities, 
and  are  finally  collected  in  a  circular  chamber  known 
as  the  gas-holder,  from  which  they  are  distributed  to 
the  consumer.  Fig.  23. 

If  the  purification  is  not  perfect,  the  coal  gas  will 
contain  sulphur  compounds,  and  these  on  burning  pro- 
duce oxide  of  sulphur,  which  is  further  changed  by 
moisture  and  the  air  into  sulphuric  acid.  The  quan- 
tity produced  may  be  very  minute  and  yet  in  time 
may  be  sufficient  to  damage  books  and  fabrics. 

The  materials  which  collect  in  the  hydraulic  main 
and  the  condensers  contain  many  useful  substances, 
one  of  the  most  valuable  being  ammonia.  Among  the 
most  interesting  substances  obtained  from  coal  tar  is 
aniline  from  which  beautiful  dyes  are  made.  Aniline 
itself  is  a  colorless  liquid,  but  in  combination  with 
other  chemical  substances  it  yields  a  wide  range  of 
beautiful  colors  now  used  in  dyeing.  Other  useful 
substances  obtained  from  the  distillation  of  coal  tar 
are  carbolic  acid,  a  disinfectant,  and  naphthalene 
which  is  sold  in  the  form  of  moth  balls. 

In  some  cities  what  is  known  as  water  gas  forms 
the  basis  of  the  illuminating  gas.  This  is  made  by 
passing  very  hot  steam  over  red  hot  anthracite  (x>al 
or  coke.  The  oxygen  of  the  water  unites  with  the 
carbon  of  the  coal,  forming  carbon  monoxide — a  com- 
pound of  one  part  oxygen  and  one  part  carbon — and 
the  hydrogen  of  the  water  is  set  free.  Both  the  gases 


114 


LIGHTING.  99 

thus  formed  will  burn,  but  in  burning  they  produce  a 
colorless  flame.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  mix  with 
them  some  gases  containing  much  more  carbon  which 
will  give  light  when  burning.  The  mixture  is  stored 
and  distributed  like  coal  gas. 

This  gas  is  cheaper  to  manufacture  in  most  locali- 
ties, but  it  contains  much  more  carbon  monoxide  which 
is  a  very  poisonous  gas.  Much  discussion  has  arisen 
as  to  the  safety  of  using  water  gas  and  in  some  places 
its  manufacture  is  forbidden  by  law. 

The  destructive  distillation  of  vegetable  and  animal       Natural 
life  in  the  depths  of  the  earth,  caused  by  the  great       Gas 
heat  within  the  earth,  has  in  some  places  given  rise 
to  petroleum  and  natural  gas.     The  gas  gave  a  cheap 
and  convenient  fuel,  but  unfortunately  the  supply  is 
becoming  rapidly  exhausted. 

An  illuminating  gas  of  growing  importance  today  Acetylene 
is  acetylene.  This  is  a  compound  of  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen and  is  prepared  by  the  action  of  water  upon  cal- 
cium carbide,  which  is  a  compound  of  carbon  and  the 
element  calcium.  Calcium  carbide  is  manufactured  in 
large  quantities  at  Niagara  Falls  where  pure  lime 
mixed  with  powdered  charcoal  is  fused  at  an  intense 
heat.  A  dark  gray  crystalline  solid  results  which, 
when  mixed  with  water,  produces  acetylene  gas  and 
slaked  lime. 

Acetylene  is  a  colorless  gas  of  characteristic  odor, 
soluble  in  \vater,  and  explosive  if  mixed  with  air. 
With  an  ordinary  burner  it  makes  a  yellowish  smoky 


115 


ioo  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

flame,  but  with  a  properly  constructed  burner,  it  gives 
a  brilliantly  white  light,  very  like  sunlight.  Colors 
appear  at  their  true  values  seen  in  this  light.  The 
flame  is  an  intensely  hot  one.  In  acetylene  burners 
the  gas  escapes  through  two  very  minute  holes  directed 
obliquely  towards  each  other,  as  shown  in  Fig.  24. 


FIG.   24.     ACETYLENE   GAS   BURNERS. 

Acetylene          The  gas  has  been  somewhat  in  disrepute  because  of 

Generators        /     •        »  -11  r 

lack  of  a  suitable  arrangement  for  making  and  storing 
it.  Many  generators  are  upon  the  market,  it  is  true, 
but  very  few  of  these  are  really  safe.  As  soon  as  a 
reliable  one  is  obtainable,  the  gas  will  be  widely  used 
for  lighting.  It  may  also  be  used  for  cooking,  but  at 
present  is  rather  expensive.  One  form  of  generator 
is  illustrated  in  Fig.  25.  The  calcium  carbide  in 
lumps  is  fed  automatically  into  water  as  long  as  the 
•  gas  is  used.  When  the  storage  tank  is  nearly  full  the 
supply  of  carbide  is  automatically  shut  off.  In  an- 
other style,  which  is  also  automatic,  water  is  fed  on 
to  the  lumps  of  carbide.  Both  styles  have  their  advo- 
cates, but  the  lump  feed  generator  is  most  generally 
recommended.  The  apparatus  costs  from  about  $65.00 
for  a  10  light  plant  to  $300.00  for  a  ioo  light  plant. 


116 


LIGHTING. 


101 


A  cheaper  gas  than  acetylene  is  gasoline  gas,  some- 
times called  carburetted  air  gas  because  it  is  com- 
mon air  impregnated  with  the  vapors  of  gasoline.  It 
burns  with  a  rich,  bright  flame  similar  to  coal  gas  and 


Fig.   25.     Acetylene  Gas  Generator  and   Storage  Tank. 

is  conducted  through  pipes  and  fixtures  in  the  same 
manner.     It  may  be  used  in  an  ordinary  gas  stove. 

The  gas  machine  consists  of  a  generator  containing 
evaporating  pans,  an  automatic  air  pump  operated  by 


Gasoline 
Gas 


117 


102 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 


Oxide  of 
Calcium 


a  heavy  weight  or  by  a  water  motor,  together  with 
a  regulator  or  mixer.  The  general  arrangement  is 
shown  in  Fig.  26,  the  generator  being  entirely  outside 
the  building  in  which  the  gas  is  used.  All  such  ma- 
chines require  intelligent  care,  for  several  disastrous 


FIG.   26.     GASOLINE   GAS   PLANT. 

explosions  have  taken  place  when  such  care  has  not 
been  given  to  the  apparatus. 

LIME. 

One  of  the  common  chemical  substances  found  about 
the  country  house  at  least  is  quick  lime,  used  for 
whitewash  and  as  a  deodorizer. 

The  term  lime  usually  means  the  oxide  of  the  element 
calcium.  Its  commonest  compound  is  calcium  carbon- 
ate which  is  found  in  nature  as  limestone,  chalk,  mar- 
ble, coral,  shells,  and  several  other  familiar  substances. 
Calcium  is  also  found  combined  with  sulphur  and 


118 


LIME.  103 

oxygen  in  the  compound  calcium  sulphate,  which  is 
the  mineral  gypsum  from  which  plaster  of  Paris  is 
made.  Bones  contain  a  considerable  amount  of  cal- 
cium phosphate  and  egg  shells,  calcium  carbonate. 

Lime,  the  oxide  of  calcium,  is  made  by  heating  Quick 
broken  pieces  of  limestone  in  furnaces  called  lime  kilns. 
The  calcium  carbonate  as  a  compound  is  broken  up, 
carbon  dioxide  gas  being  given  off  and  calcium  oxide 
left.  This  freshly  formed  oxide  is  called  "quick  lime," 
and  when  it  is  exposed  to  moist  air,  it  attracts  water 
and  changes  to  a  form  called  chemically,  calcium 
hydroxide  and,  commonly,  ''slaked  lime."  Quick  lime 
may  be  used  to  dry  the  air  of  damp  cellars,  etc.,  because 
of  this  property.  The  process  of  slaking  the  lime  is 
also  accomplished  by  treating  quick  lime  with  water. 
When  this  is  done,  much  heat  is  evolved  and  the  hard 
lumps  crumble  to  a  soft  powder  and  increase  consider- 
ably in  bulk.  The  rise  in  temperature  shows  that 
chemical  change  is  taking  place. 

Slaked  lime  will  dissolve  slightly  in  water,  yield-  Lime 
ing  lime-water.  This  is  a  mild  alkali  and  has  several 
household  uses.  It  may  be  prepared  by  pouring  two 
quarts  of  boiling  v/ater  over  about  a  cubic  inch  of 
unslaked  lime.  Stir  it  thoroughly  and  let  it  stand  over 
night ;  in  the  morning  pour  off  the  liquid  and  treat 
the  sediment  with  hot  water  a  second  time.  When  the 
sediment  has  again  settled,  pour  off  the  clear  liquid 
and  bottle  this.  It  is  mixed  with  milk  and  fed  to 
young  children  and  invalids  to  prevent  acidity  of  the 


119 


104 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 


Mortar 

and 

Plaster 


Hydraulic 
Cement 


stomach  and  make  the  milk  more  easily  digested. 
Lime-water  and  oil  form  one  of  the  best  remedies  for 
burns.  The  alkali  of  the  lime  neutralizes  the  acid 
nature  of  the  burn. 

Mortar  is  made  of  slaked  lime  and  sand.  When 
this  is  spread  upon  the  walls,  the  lime  slowly  absorbs 
carbon  dioxide,  always  present  in  the  air,  and  changes 
to  carbonate  of  lime.  The  water  is  given  off  into  the 
air  (evaporates)  and  the  mass  becomes  hard.  Of 
course  the  surface  becomes  carbonate  sooner  than  the 
deeper  parts  because  this  has  closer  contact  with  the 
air,  and  it  therefore  takes  considerable  time  for  all  the 
plaster  to  harden.  The  water  contained  in  the  mortar 
soon  dries,  but  while  the  mortar  is  becoming  hard, 
more  water  is  continually  formed  in  the  chemical  pro- 
cess, so  that  it  requires  a  long  time  for  the  new  plaster 
to  become  quite  dry.  It  is  considered  unhealthy  to 
live  in  rooms  with  newly  plastered  walls.  This  may 
be  because  such  walls  are  damp,  thus  producing  damp 
air,  or  it  may  be  because  the  moisture  in  the  walls 
interferes  with  the  passage  of  air  and  other  gases 
through  the  walls — a  process  little  considered  as  a 
rule,  but  of  great  importance. 

Certain  varieties  of  limestone  contain  other  salts, 
such  as  magnesium  carbonate.  Lime  made  from  these 
does  not  soften  from  exposure  to  the  air.  It  will, 
however,  harden  after  long  contact  with  water,  and 
such  substances  are  known  as  cements.  Portland  cement 
will  harden  under  water. 


120 


LIME. 


10$ 


Quick-lime  is  a  strong  alkali  and  does  the  work  of 
such  substances.  It  is  used  in  tanneries  in  taking 
hair  from  hides  and  also  in  decomposing  fats  for  mak- 
ing candles.  When  dead  animal  substance  is  buried 
in  lime,  the  process  of  decomposition  is  greatly  hast- 
ened, probably  because  the  lime  unites  with  all  water 
present  while  the  strong  alkali  acts  upon  the  fats  re- 
ducing them  to  soaps  of  different  kinds. 

Whitewash  is  simple  slaked  lime  mixed  with  water. 
It  is  very  cleansing  in  its  effects  and  also  gives  the  ap- 
pearance of  freshness  and  cleanness.  When  newly  ap- 
plied, it  is  nearly  colorless,  for  the  calcium  hydrate  is 
colorless ;  this  in  the  air  soon  changes  to  calcium  car- 
bonate which  is  white  and  opaque. 

CHEMISTRY  AND  ELECTRICITY. 

In  most  houses  electricity  is  used  for  operating  the 
door  bell,  table  bell  and  perhaps  the  electric  gas  light- 
ers. We  have  learned  how  stored  up  chemical  energy 
is  changed  into  heat  and  force  in  the  stove  and  in  the 
human  body ;  but  in  the  electric  cell,  chemical  energy 
is  changed  into  electrical  energy. 

If  a  strip  of  pure  zinc  be  placed  in  a  weak  solution 
of  acid,  no  chemical  action  takes  place.  Place  in  the 
same  solution  a  strip  of  sheet  copper  and  again  •  no 
action  takes  place ;  but  let  the  copper  and  the  zinc  be 
brought  in  contact,  or  connected  by  a  copper  wire,  and 
immediately  vigorous  chemical  action  will  begin  at  the 
surface  of  the  copper  plate ;  bubbles  of  hydrogen  col- 
lecting there.  This  action  is  as  follows :  the  zinc  dis- 


A   Voltaic 
Cell 


121 


io6  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

solves  in  the  acid  and  hydrogen  is  set  free.  This 
hydrogen  travels  with  an  electric  current  set  up  in  the 
liquid,  passing  from  particle  to  particle  through  the 
liquid  until  it  reaches  the  copper.  Here  the  hydrogen 
stops,  but  the  electric  current  passes  up  the  copr-er 
plate  and  over  the  wire  to  the  zinc  and  down  that  ^.o 


Fig.    27.     A    Simple  Fig.     28.     A     Leclanche 

Voltaic    Cell.  Cell. 

the  liquid  and  so  on.     This  arrangement  of  acid  an-1 
metals  is  called  a  simple  voltaic  cell.     Fig.  27. 

Other  cells  are  arranged  with  different  liquids  and 
Cel1  solids  to  gain  various  ends,  and  several  cells  may  be 
united  by  wires  between  the  plates  to  gain  additional 
strength  of  current.  The  form  of  cell  often  employed 
to  work  electric  bells  is  the  Leclanche  cell.  Fig.  28. 
This  consists  of  a.  plate  of  carbon  (or  a  porous  cell 
containing  carbon),  in  place  of,  the  copper,  a  strip 
or  rod  of  zinc,  and  a  solution  of  ammonium  chloride 


122 


ELECTRICITY. 


107 


which  takes  the  place  of  the  acid.  The  zinc  is  not 
affected  by  the  ammonium  chloride  unless  it  is  con- 
nected with  the  carbon,  but  when  there  is  a  circuit 
for  the  electricity,  a  current  is  generated.  The  com- 
mon conductors  of  the  electric  current  are  the  metals 
and  carbons. 


Fig.   29.      A  Battery   of  Cells  Connected  In  Series. 

The  zinc  is  gradually  changed  to  zinc  chloride,  at 
the  expense  of  the  ammonium  chloride,  and  after  a 
time  both  the  zinc  and  the  ammonium  chloride  must 
be  renewed.  In  renewing  the  battery,  the  jars  should  be 
cleaned  out  carefully  and  the  zincs  renewed  if  they 
are  completely  eaten  through.  A  quarter  of  a  pound 
of  pure  ammonium  chloride  (sal-ammoniac)  is  dis- 
solved in  enough  water  to  about  half  fill  a  jar.  When 
the  carbon  and  the  zinc  are  replaced,  this  will  bring 
the  liquid  up  to  two  inches  from  the  top.  The  jar 
should  not  be  filled  too  full.  The  wires  which  have 
•been  disconnected  should  be  reconnected  as  before. 

For  bell  work  the  cells  are  usually  connected  up  "in 
series,"  that  is,  the  zinc  of  one  cell  is  connected  to 


Renewing 
Batteries 


Cells  in 
Seriea 


123 


lo8  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

the  carbon  of  the  next,  the  outside  circuit  being  estab- 
lished between  the  end  carbon  and  end  zinc.     Fig.  29. 
If  there  is  a  short  circuit  anywhere 
in  the  line,  that  is,  if  the  current  has  a 
chance  in  any  way  to  flow  from  one 
wire    to    the    other    without    going 
through  the  bell  or  other  apparatus, 
the    batteries    are    very    quickly    ex- 
hausted. 

A  modification  of  this  cell  has  been 
made  in  which  the  spaces  inside  it  are 
filled  with  some  spongy  mass  in  the 
pores  of  which  the  ammonium  chlor- 
Fig.  so.  A  Dry  Ceil.  ^e  'ls  held.  These  may  easily  be  car- 
ried about  without  danger  of  spilling  solutions.  They 
are  called  dry  cells  and  when  exhausted  cannot  read- 
ily be  renewed. 

PLANTS. 

Most  housekeepers  have  at  least  a  few  house  plants 
and  many  have  gardens  which  occupy  part  of  the  time 
each  day.  All  foods  are  directly  or  indirectly  produced 
by  plants  and  it  is  well  to  consider  also  what  food  these 
living  things  require  in  their  turn. 

plan  Fo«ds  Plants  are  able  to  take  from  the  materials  forming 
the  crust  of  the  earth  and  from  the  air  surrounding 
them  all  that  they  need  for  their  life.  The  leaves  of 
the  plants,  because  of  the  green  substance  called 


124 


PLANTS. 


log 


Upper  Surface 


A 
B-reatHinq  Pores 

Fig.  31.  Section  Through 
a  Leaf. 


chlorophyl,  have  the  power  of  decomposing  carbon 
dioxide  gas  in  a  such  a  way  that  plants  make  use  of 
the  carbon  arid  breathe  out  oxygen.  Fig.  31.  This 
separation  is  very  difficult  to 
make  in  the  laboratory.  The  en- 
ergy of  sunlight  is  utilized  by  the 
plant  for  this  work,  for  the  action 
does  not  take  place  in  darkness. 
In  this  way  plants  return  to  the 
air  the  oxygen  so  necessary  for 
animal  life  and  are  themselves 
fed  in  part  by  the  useless  and 
even  harmful  gas  exhaled  by  ani- 
mals. 

The  soil  on  which  the  plant  grows  furnishes  the 
mineral  matter  needed.  When  plant  tissues  are 
burned,  these  mineral  substances  remain  as  ashes. 
When  the  ashes  of  plants  are  analyzed,  they  are  found 
to  consist  of  potash,  soda,  iron,  and  lime  in  the  form 
of  phosphates,  sulphates,  and  silicates.  Some  of  these 
substances  are  present  in  the  soil  in  inexhaustible 
quantities,  but  others  are  less  abundant  and  unless  the 
soil  be  fertilized  from  time  to  time,  the  plant  soon 
uses  them  up.  These  less  abundant  substances  are 
phosphates,  potash,  and  nitrogen. 

The  lover  of  house  plants  has  long  resorted  to 
various  expedients  for  feeding  them,  and  many  plant 
foods  are  now  sold  and  in  common  use.  In  using  these 
for  manuring  potted  plants,  care  must  be  taken  not  to 


125 


no 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 


Nitrogen  and 
Plant  Life 


Conservation 


use  too  much,  since  strong  solutions  of  them  are  likely 
to  corrode  the  roots  and  kill  the  plants. 

Although  nitrogen  is  a  very  abundant  element,  form- 
ing as  has  been  said,  four-fifths  of  the  air,  yet  it  is  com- 
paratively rare  in  forms  which  are  of  use  to  plants. 
As  a  rule  plants  cannot  take  it  from  the  air  and  there- 
fore require  soluble  compounds  of  nitrogen  for  food. 
One  of  the  most  important  of  these  is  ammonia.  This 
is  formed  when  organic  substances  decay,  its  odor 
being  very  noticeable  about  stables.  Its  action  with 
acids  was  described  in  the  pages  about  cleaning  and  it 
was  explained  how  it  unites  with  acids  to  form  salts, 
usually  soluble.  Sulphate  of  ammonia  is  the  form  used 
in  agriculture.  A  very  little  ammonia  in  the  water 
used  on  house  plants  is  a  good  thing  for  them. 

It  has  been  seen  that  plants  by  aid  of  sunlight  breathe 
in  carbon  dioxide  and  breathe  out  oxygen  gas.  In 
addition  to  this,  they  also  breathe  as  animals  do,  to  a 
slight  extent,  taking  in  oxygen  and  breathing  out  car- 
bon dioxide.  This  action  is  more  pronounced  in  dark- 
ness. 

The  wonderful  principle  called  conservation  is  il- 
lustrated by  what  we  know  of  plant  life.  Plants  in 
growing  store  up  energy  derived  from  the  heat  and 
light  of  the  sun.  When  they  decay,  or  are  burned,  or 
are  eaten  by  animals,  exactly  the  same  amount  of 
energy  is  set  free  and  changed  into  a  new  form,  and 
just  as  much  carbon  dioxide  as  the  plant  breathed  in, 
is  given  back  to  the  air.  A  plant  which  was  many 


126 


PLANTS. 


ill 


years  in  growing  may  be  consumed  in  an  hour  or  may 
decay  slowly  for  years.  In  either  case  the  same  total 
amount  of  energy  is  set  free,  fast  or  slowly.  This 
energy  is  most  apparent  as  heat.  In  the  growth  and 
destruction  of  the  plant  both  energy  and  matter  have 
been  transformed,  but  neither  energy  nor  matter  has 
been  made  or  lost — it  has  merely  taken  on  a  new  appear- 
ance. When  animals  feed  on  plants  they  transform  the 
energy  of  sunlight  which  is  stored  up  in  the  plant  into 
energy  of  vitality.  In  this  sense  man  and  all  animals 
are  "children  of  the  sun." 

CHEMICAL  TERMS. 

To  explain  various  chemical  and  physical  phenomena 
the  scientists  consider  that  matter  consists  of  certain 
small  molecules  and  atoms. 

If  a  drop  of  water  be  divided  and  sub-divided  in- 
definitely, it  is  conceivable  that  a  point  would  come 
when  it  could  not  be  divided  further  by  physical  means. 
This  final  bit  of  water  is  called  a  molecule.  It  would 
be  far  from  visible  by  the  most  powerful  microscope. 
From  calculation  which  we  will  not  go  into,  we  learn 
that  a  few  hundred  million  ordinary  sized  molecules 
would  cover  the  space  of  a  pin  head. 

If  the  water  is  broken  up  by  some  powerful  force 
as  by  the  electric  current,  we  have  seen  that  two  dif- 
ferent substances  are  obtained — oxygen  and  hydrogen. 
Consequently  the  molecules  of  water  must  have  been 
made  up  of  other  still  smaller  particles  and  these  are 
called  atoms.  The  atoms  of  a  chemical  element,  then, 


Molecules 


127 


112 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 


Atoms 


Chemical 
Signs 


are  of  the  same  kind,  for  from  an  elemental  substance 
like  oxygen,  only  oxygen  can  be  obtained  by  any 
means  now  known. 

The  atoms  may  be  likened  to  the  letters  of  our  alpha- 
bet and  the  molecules  to  the  words.  From  a  few  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  atoms  (letters)  can  be  made  a  great 
variety  of  molecules  (words). 

TABLE    OF    COMMON    ELEMENTS. 


Aluminum 

Al 

Iodine 

I 

Oxygen 

o 

Arsenic 

As 

Iron 

Fe 

Phosphorus 

P 

Barium 

Ba 

(Perrum) 

Silicon 

Si 

Boron 

B 

Lead 

Pb 

Silver 

Ag 

Calcium 
Carbon 

Ca 
C 

(Plumbum) 
Magnesium 

Kg 

(Argentum) 
Sodium 

Na       ' 

Chlorine 

Cl 

Manganese 

Mn 

(Natrium) 

Copper 
Gold 

Cu 
Au 

Mercury             Hg 
(Hydrargyrum) 

Sulphur 
Tin 

S 
Sn 

(Aurum) 

Nickel 

Ni 

(Stannum) 

Hydrogen 

H 

Nitrogen 

N 

Zinc 

Zn 

The  atoms  of  an  element  are  all  exactly  alike.  They 
weigh  the  same  and  act  the  same  whatever  their 
source.  Two  or  more  atoms  of  an  element  may  com- 
bine to  make  a  molecule  of  that  element.  The  mole- 
cules of  a  chemical  substance  are  always  composed  of 
the  same  number  and  kind  of  atoms. 

To  express  the  composition  of  substances  chemists 
have  made  use  of  certain  abbreviations  and  signs.  To 
indicate  an  atom  of  hydrogen  the  letter  H  is  used  and 
for  oxygen,  the  letter  O,  for  nitrogen,  N,  and  so  on  as 
shown  in  the  table. 

When  expressing  a  compound  the  number  of  atoms 
is  indicated  by  sub-script ;  for  example,  H2  means  two 


128 


CHEMICAL  TERMS.  113 

atoms  of  hydrogen;  H2O  expresses  two  atoms  of 
hydrogen  and  one  atom  of  oxygen,  and  as  we  have 
found,  this  is  the  composition  of  water ;  so  H2O  is  the 
chemist's  short  way  of  indicating  water.  These  are 
called  chemical  formulas.  The  formula  for  sulphuric 
acid  is  H2SO4.  This  indicates  that  it  is  made  up  of  two 
atoms  of  hydrogen,  one  atom  of  sulphur,  and  four 
atoms  of  oxygen.  The  following  table  gives  the  chemi- 
cal formulas  of  many  of  the  chemical  substances  found 
in  the  household. 

THE  HOUSEKEEPER'S  LABORATORY. 

All  modern  science  is  based  upon  experiment. 
Chemistry  was  hardly  a  science  until  experimental  re- 
search began.  It  must  be  confessed  that  the  average 
housewife  seldom  thinks  of  making  experiments.  She 
is  apt  to  remain  helpless  before  any  new  problem  of 
the  home  without  printed  directions  or  advice  from 
friends.  Very  often  the  easiest  and  surest  way  to  find 
out  a  thing  is  to  try  it.  Use  your  kitchen  as  a  labora- 
tory. It  would,  of  course,  be  most  unwise  to  make  ex- 
periments on  expensive  materials.  For  example,  if 
a  stain  was  to  be  removed  from  colored  goods,  it  would 
be  best  to  find  the  effect  of  the  chemicals  to  be  used  on 
some  small  piece  of  the  fabric. 

To  test  the  color  of  a  sample  of  gingham  for  fastness 
in  washing,  try  a  part  of  the  sample"  in  soap  and  hot 
water  and  see  if  the  color  "runs"  or  stains  the  water. 
Dry  and  iron  the  piece  treated  and  compare  with  the 
portion  of  the  original  sample  kept.  A  sample  can  be 


Expressing 
Molecules 


Experiment* 


Testini 
Colors 


129 


114  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

TABLE  OF  COMMON  SUBSTANCES  AND  THEIR  FORMULAS. 


SUBSTANCE 

FORMULA 

SUBSTANCE 

FORMULA 

Water  

H2O 

Calcium  Oxide 

Peroxide  of  Hydro- 

(Lime)     

CaO 

gen   .....       • 

H2O2 

Lime  Water  .... 

CaoH 

Sulphuric  Acid  .   . 

H2SO* 

Calcium  Carbonate 

CaCO3 

Sulphur  Dioxide    . 

S0a 

Calcium  Hypo- 

Hydrochloric   Acid 

HC1 

chlorite  (Chloride 
of  Lime)    .... 

Ca(ClO), 

\cetic  Acid  .... 

CZH402 

Sodium  Thiosul- 

Tartaric  Acid  .  .   . 

C«H80« 

phite  ("Hypo")  . 

Na2S2O3 

Cream  of  Tartar 

Cane  Sugar  .... 

Ci2H22On 

(Acid  potassium 

KC  H  0 

Milk  Sugar  .... 

Ci,H320,,-fH20 

Carbon  Dioxide  .  . 

CO, 

Grape  Sugar    .   .   . 

C,H120« 

Starch     . 

(C6H10O6)x 

Carbon  Monoxide  . 

CO 

Cellulose   ... 

(C6Hi0O8)y 

Caustic  Soda   .  .   . 

NaOH 

Stearine  (in  fat)     . 

C  H   (O  OH) 

Caustic  Potash    .   . 

KOH 

38           2       18        3SJ3 

Sodium  Carbonate 

Palmitin  (in  fat)     . 

C3H6(02C19H31)3 

(Anhydrous)     .   . 

Na2C03 

3 

Na02C18H38, 

Soap    •< 

NaC^CiftHaii 

Sodium  Carbonate 

| 

etc. 

(Crystalline') 
(Washing  Soda)  . 

Na2C03+12H20 

Albumen    .   .   .   .  \ 

(Not  definitely 
known.) 

Sodium    Bicarbon- 

Alcohol   

CuHgOH 

ate    ....... 

NaHCO3 

Wood  Alcohol     .   . 

CH3OH 

Ammonia  (gas)    .  . 

NH3 

Glycerine  •  •  •  • 

C3H8(OH)3 

Ammonium  Hy- 
drate   (Ammonia 

G'soline,  N'phtha  ) 

Water) 

NH4OH 

B                                f 

CsH       etc. 

130 


THE    HOUSEKEEPER'S   LABORATORY.         115 

tested  for  fastness  to  light  by  exposing  to  dfrect  sun- 
light for  a  day  or  two,  saving  a  portion  of  the  cloth  as 
before  for  comparison.  If  the  dye  will  stand  direct 
sunlight  without  appreciable  change  for  this  length  of 
time,  it  will  not  give  much  trouble  by  fading.  Wall 
paper  may  be  tested  for  fading  in  a  similar  way. 

The  industrial  chemist  always  endeavors  to  test 
materials  in  a  manner  as  nearly  like  the  way  they  are 
to  be  used  as  possible.  For  example,  if  he  were  testing 
two  samples  of  flour  to  be  used  for  making  bread,  he 
might  make  up  two  small  loaves,  using  carefully 
weighed  quantities  of  each  sample  of  flour  and  other 
materials  and  baking  the  loaves  at  one  time,  compare 
the  result.  In  such  cases  it  is  usual  to  have  a  "stand- 
ard" flour  or  other  material  to  use  for  comparison. 

This  method  of  testing  by  comparison  could  often 
be  used  by  housekeepers  provided  reasonable  care 
were  taken  as  to  weights  and  conditions.  Working 
thus,  flour,  baking  powder,  soap,  spices,  flavoring  ex- 
tracts, in  fact  almost  all  the  raw  materials  of  the  kitchen 
and  laundry  could  be  tested. 

The  chemicals  for  househald  use  are  chiefly  acids, 
alkalies,  and  solvents  for  grease.  Acids  and  alkalies 
are  opposed  to  each  other  in  their  properties  and  if  too 
much  of  either  has  been  used,  it  may  be  rendered  in- 
nocent or  neutralized  by  the  other ;  as  when  soda  has 
turned  black  silk  brown,  acetic  acid  or  vinegar  will 
bring  the  color  back. 


131 


Acids  for  the 
Laboratory 


Care  of 

Chemicals 


ii6  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

The  acids  which  should  be  on  the  chemical  shelf 
for  the  household  are  acetic,  hydrochloric  (muriatic), 
oxalic.  Vinegar  may  be  used  in  many  cases  instead  of 
acetic  acid,  but  vinegar  contains  coloring  matter  which 
stains  delicate  fabrics  and  it  is  better  to  use  the  puri- 
fied acid.  Hydrochloric  and  oxalic  acids  are  strong 
acids  and  will  harm  most  household  materials  if  al- 
lowed to  act  for  long  time.  Acetic  acid  is  a  weak  acid 
and  as  it  is  volatile,  evaporates  without  becoming  con- 
centrated as  do  the  others. 

Some  bright  blue  flannels  and  other  fabrics,  when 
washed  with  soap  or  ammonia  become  changed  or 
faded  in  color.  If  acetic  acid  or  vinegar  be  added  to 
the  last  rinsing  water,  the  original  appearance  may  be 
restored.  Not  all  shades  of  blue  are  made  by  the  same 
compounds,  hence  not  all  faded  blues  can  be  thus  re- 
stored. 

The  use  of  these  acids  has  been  indicated  in  the 
previous  pages,  and  there  remains  to  be  considered, 
only  certain  cautions.  Hydrochloric  acid  is  somewhat 
volatile.  It  will  escape  even  around  a  glass  stopper 
and  will  eat  a  cork  stopper ;  therefore,  either  the  glass 
stopper  should  be  tied  in  with  an  impervious  cover — 
rubber  or  parchment — or  a  rubber  stopper  used,  for  the 
escaping  fumes  will  rust  metals  and  eat  fabrics. 

Oxalic  acid  should  be  labeled  POISON. 

The  bleaching  agents,  "chloride  of  lime"  and  Javelle 
water  owe  their  beneficent  effect  to  substances  of  an 
acid  nature  which  are  liberated  from  them.  They 


132 


THE   HOUSEKEEPER'S   LABORATORY.         117 

should  all  be  used  in  solution  only,  and  should  be  kept 
in  bottles  with  rubber  stoppers. 

Sulphurous  acid  gas,  obtained  by  burning  sulphur, 
will  often  remove  spots  which  nothing  else  will  touch. 
The  amount  given  off  from  a  burning  sulphur  match 
will  often  be  sufficient  to  remove  from  the  finger  fruit 
stains  or  those  made  by  black  kid  gloves. 

The  alkalies  which  are  indispensable  are:  Alkalies 

ist.  Ammonia — better  that  of  the  druggist  than  the 
often  impure  and  always  weak  "household  ammonia." 
The  strong  ammonia  is  best  diluted  about  one-half, 
since  it  is  very  volatile,  and  much  escapes  into  the  air. 

2nd.  Potash  and  Caustic  Soda,  which  are  to  be  had  at 
the  grocers  in  small  cans.  The  lye  obtained  from  wood 
ashes  owes  its  caustic  and  soap-making  properties  to 
potash.  The  caustics  are  corrosive  in  their  action,  and 
must  be  used  with  discretion. 

Crystallized  sodium  carbonate,  the  sal-soda  of  the 
grocer,  is  chemically  speaking  a  salt  and  not  an  alkali, 
but  it  gives  all  the  effect  of  one,  since  the  carbonic  acid 
is  so  weak  that  it  readily  gives  place  to  other  sub- 
stances. 

Sal-soda  is  a  very  cheap  chemical,  since  it  is  readily 
manufactured  in  large  quantities,  and  forms  the  basis 
of  most  of  the  washing  powders  on  the  market.  With 
grease,  it  forms  a  soap  which  is  dissolved  and  carried 
away. 

3rd.  Borax  is  a  compound  of  sodium  with  boric  acid, 
rnd  acts  as  a  mild  alkali.  It  is  the  safest  of  all  the 


133 


n8  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

alkalies,   and  affects   colored   fabrics    less   than   does 
ammonia. 

Solvents  Solvents  for  grease  are  alcohol,  chloroform,  ether, 
benzine,  naphtha,  gasolene — all  volatile — kerosene  and 
turpentine.  Of  these  chloroform  is  the  most  costly, 
and  is  used  chiefly  for  taking  spots  from  delicate  silks. 
Fabrics  and  colors  not  injured  by  water  may  be  treated 
by  alcohol  or  ether.  Benzine,  naphtha  or  gasolene  are 
often  sold,  each  under  the  name  of  the  other.  If  care 
is  taken  to  prevent  the  spreading  of  the  ring,  they  can 
be  safely  used  on  any  fabric.  They  do  not  mix  with 
water,  and  are  very  inflammable. 

The  less  volatile  solvents  are  kerosene  and  turpen- 
tine. Kerosene  is  a  valuable  agent  in  the  household, 
and  since  some  of  the  dealers  have  provided  a  deodor- 
ized quality,  it  should  find  an  even  wider  use.  The 
lighter  variety  is  better  than  the  I5o-degree  fire  test, 
which  is  the  safe  oil  for  lamps.  As  has  been  indicated 
in  the  preceding  pages,  the  housewife  will  find  many 
uses  for  this  common  substance. 

On  account  of  the  purity  and  cheapness  of  kerosene, 
turpentine  is  less  used  than  formerly,  although  it  has 
its  advantages. 

closet  for  These  household  chemicals  should  have  their  own 
closet  or  chest,  as  separate  from  other  bottles  as  is  the 
medicine  chest,  and  especially  should  they  be  separated 
from  it.  Many  distressing  accidents  have  occurred 
from  swallowing  ammonia  by  mistake. 

In  addition  to  these  substances,  certain  others  may  be 
kept  on  hand,  if  the  housewife  has  sufficient  chemical 


134 


THE    HOUSEKEEPER'S   LABORATORY.         119 

knowledge  to  enable  her  to  detect  adulteration  in  the 
groceries  and  other  materials  which  she  buys. 

A   few  of  these   simple   tests   are   given  with  the       Testg 
chemicals  needed. 
Directions  for  Using  the  Housekeeper's  Laboratory. 

When  directed  to  make  a  solution  acid  or  alkaline, 
always  test  it  by  means  of  the  litmus  paper: 

Blue  turned  to  red  means  acid.  Red  turned  to  blue 
means  alkaline. 

Only  by  following  the  directions  can  the  test  be 
relied  upon.  Under  other  circumstances  than  those 
given,  the  results  may  mean  something  else. 

Use  the  acids  in  glass  or  china  vessels  only.    Metals       vessels 
may  be  attacked.     Do  not  touch  brass  with  ammonia 
or  marble  with  acid.    Aluminum  is  quickly  corroded  by 
the  alkalies. 

Heating  or  burning  a  substance  often  gives  evidence 
of  its  character.  Organic  solids  will  char,  leaving 
charcoal  (carbon)  when  heated  and  will  disappear 
completely  when  burned.  Some  salts  melt;  others  do 
not. 

All  the  carbonates  that  the  housewife  is  likely  to      carbonates 
meet  will  give  an  effervescence  of  carbon  dioxide  with 
muriatic  acid  and  most  of  them  with  acetic  acid. 

Substances  of  an  acid  nature  will  effervesce  with  a 
solution  of  cooking  soda.  The  test  will  be  more  deli- 
cate if  the  solutions  are  warm. 

To  test  for  sulphuric  acid  or  soluble  sulphate  in  soda, 
cream  of  tartar,  baking  powder,  vinegar,  sugar  or 


135 


120 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 


syrup:  Add  muriatic  acid  to  the  solution  (if  the  in- 
soluble part  is  sulphate  of  lime,  it  will  dissolve  in  the 
acid  on  heating),  then  add  barium  chloride.  A  heavy 
white  precipitate  proves  the  presence  of  sulphuric  acid, 
either  free  or  combined.  If  the  solution  is  not  distinct- 
ly acid  at  first,  it  is  not  free. 

Lime  Test  To  test  for  lime  in  cream  of  tartar,  baking  powder, 
sugar  or  syrup :  Make  the  solution  alkaline  with  am- 
monia and  ammonium  oxalate.  A  fine  white  precipi- 
tate proves  the  presence  of  lime.  Good  cream  of  tartar 
will  dissolve  in  boiling  water,  and  will  show  only 
slight  cloudiness  when  the  test  for  lime  is  applied. 

Phosphates  To  test  for  phosphates  in  cream  of  tartar  or  baking 
powder :  Make  acid  by  nitric  acid,  and  add  ammonium 
molybdate.  A  fine  yellow  precipitate  or  yellow  color 
proves  the  presence  of  phosphates. 

chlorides  To  test  for  chlorides  in  soda,  baking  powder,  sugar, 
syrup  or  water:  Make  the  solution  (a  fresh  portion) 
acid  with  nitric  acid,  and  add  silver  nitrate.  A  white 
curdy  precipitate  or  a  cloudiness  indicates  chlorides. 

Ammonia  To  test  for  ammonia  in  baking  powder :  Add  a 
small  lump  of  caustic  soda  to  a  strong  water  solution. 
Red  litmus  will  turn  blue  in  the  steam,  on  heating. 

Alum  To  test  for  alum  in  cream  of  tartar,  baking  powder 
or  bread :  Prepare  a  fresh  decoction  of  logwood ;  add 
a  few  drops  of  this  to  the  solution  or  substance,  aiH 
render  acid  by  means  of  acetic  acid.  A  yellow  color 
in  the  acid  solution  proves  absence  of  alum.  A  bluish 


136 


TESTS.  121 

or  purplish  red,  more  or  less  decided,  means  more  or 
less  alum. 

To  test  for  starch  in  any  mixture  which  has  been  starch 
cooked,  simply  moisten  with  dilute  tincture  of  iodine 
such  as  is  kept  by  the  druggists.  An  intense  blue  color 
will  show  the  presence  of  even  a  minute  quantity  of 
starch.  If  the  substance  has  not  been  heated,  boil  a 
portion  and  let  cool  and  then  test  with  a  few  drops  of 
iodine  solution.  Heat  destroys  the  blue  color  of  iodine 
with  starch  and  therefore  the  test  must  be  made  in  cold 
solutions. 

If  the  label  of  a  washing  powder  claims  it  to  be 


something  new,  and  requires  that  it  be  used  without 
soda,  as  soda  injures  clothes,  it  can  be  tested  as  fol- 
lows :  Put  half  a  teaspoonful  of  the  powder  into  a 
tumbler,  add  a  little  water,  then  a  few  drops  of  muriatic 
acid.  A  brisk  effervescence  will  prove  it  to  be  a  car- 
bonate, and  if  the  edge  of  the  tumbler  is  held  near  the 
colorless  flame  of  an  alcohol  lamp,  the  characteristic 
yellow  color  of  sodium  will  appear  and  complete  the 
proof.  If  the  acid  is  added  drop  by  drop,  until  no  more 
effervescence  occurs,  and  there  remains  a  greasy  scum 
on  the  surface  of  the  liquid  in  the  tumbler,  the  com- 
pound contains  soap  as  well  as  sal-soda,  for  the  acid 
unites  with  the  alkali  of  the  soap  and  sets  free  the 
grease.  Acetic  acid  or  a  solution  of  oxalic  acid  may 
be  used  in  place  of  the  muriatic  acid. 

If  some  very  costly  silver  polishing  powder  is  offered       silver 
as  superior  to  all  other  powders,  a  drop  or  two  of 


137 


122  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

muriatic  acid  or  of  warm  vinegar  will  decide  whether 
or  not  it  is  chalk  or  whiting  by  the  effervescence  or 
liberation  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas. 

sample  in  making  all  the  foregoing  tests,  it  is  well  to  ob- 
serve the  effect  of  the  chemicals  used  on  the  substance 
to  be  tested  for,  and  so  become  familiar  with  the  char- 
acteristic color  or  appearance  of  the  test.  For  example, 
before  testing  a  washing  powder,  add  a  little  acid  to  a 
soap  solution  and  observe  the  greasy  film  produced, 
and  in  testing  for  alum  add  a  very  little  alum  solution 
to  some  flour  and  test  with  the  logwood  solution,  not- 
ing the  color  given.  This  procedure  will  lead  to  more 
reliable  results. 

Caution!  Use  a  new  solution  of  a  fresh  portion  of 
the  first  one  for  each  new  test  and  follow  directions  ex- 
actly. This  is  essential  to  remember. 


138 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

PART  1 1 1, 


Read  Carefully.  Place  your  name  and  address  on  the  first 
sheet  of  the  test.  Use  a  light  grade  of  paper  and  write  on  one 
side  of  the  sheet  only.  Do  not  copy  answers  from  the  lesson 
paper.  Use  your  own  words,  so  that  your  instructor  may  know 
that  you  understand  the  subject.  Read  the  lesson  paper  a  num- 
ber of  times  before  attempting  to  answer  the  questions. 


I. 

2. 

3- 


5- 
6. 

7- 

8. 
9- 


What  properties  of   ''cream  of   tartar"  make   i. 

suitable  for  baking  powder? 
Explain  how  a  candle  is  a  gas  factory. 
What  conditions  must  be  present  for  an  explosion 

to  take  place? 
What  is  "cooking  soda  ?"  How  does  it  differ  from 

washing  soda  ? 

What  is  the  principle  of  the  Davy  safety  lamp? 
Describe  the  manufacture  of  coal  gas. 
How   is   water  gas   made?     What  objectionable 

features  has  it? 

What  is  "quick  lime"  and  what  are  its  uses  ? 
How  is  electricity  produced  in  a  voltaic  cell  ? 
What  does  the  chemical  formula  H2SO4  indicate? 


139 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD. 

11.  How  is  "conservation"  illustrated  in  the  life  and 

decay  of  a  tree? 

12.  What  can  you  say  about  the  advisability  of  the 

housekeeper  making  experiments? 

13.  How  would  you  test  for  a  carbonate?     How  foi 

an  acid  without  using  litmus  paper? 

14.  How  are  tests  made  by  comparison? 

15.,  Are  there  any  questions  you  would  like  to  ask  re- 
lating to  "A  Day's  Chemistry"  ? 

16.  Have  you  any  personal  experience,  original 
method,  or  new  fact  to  offer,  relating  to  the  sub- 
jects taken  up  in  the  lesson  on  the  "Chemistry 
of  the  Household"  that  would  be  of  interest  to 
your  fellow  students? 

Note  —After  completing  the  test,  sign  your  full  name. 


140 


SUPPLEMENT 
CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

BY  MARGARET  E.  DODD,  S.  B. 

In  reading  many  hundreds  of  test  papers  Wiitteu 
by  our  students  I  have  found  that  additional  com 
ments  suggest  themselves  frequently,  and  it  may  be 
i  of  interest  to  bring  them  together  here. 

IMPURITIES  IN  WATER 

By  the  term  impurities,  we  mean  substances  out  of 
(place.     Pure  water  is  oxide  of  hydrogen,  HaO.     If 
(water  has  salt  dissolved  in  it,  for  instance,  the  salt  is 
in  impurity  for  the  water,  though  we  do  not  think 
>f  salt  as  being  an  impure  substance  in  itself.     The 
lineral  impurities  in  drinking  water   are    seldom  a 
source  of  danger,  although  if  the  amount  is  large, 
ich  water  may  not  "agree"  with  persons  not  used 
it.     Mineral  impurities  will  usually  make  the  water 
tard,  and  therefore   troublesome  for  laundry  work 
ind  to  some  extent  in  cooking. 

LAUNDRY  WORK 

Satisfactory  water  for  laundry  work  must  not  only 
clear  and  soft  but  it  must  be  free  from  iron,  from 
le  discoloration  due  to  decaying  vegetable   matter, 
flayey  soil,  and  so  on.     It  should  also  be  free  from  any 
>r  when  hot.    Muddy  w^ter  may  be  cleared  more 

127 


141 


128  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

or  less  satisfactorily  by  filtering  it  through  sand  or 
"by  precipitation."  In  the  latter  method,  dissolve 
a  scant  tablespoonful  each  of  alum  and  borax  in  a 
little  hot  water,  and  add  this  amount  to  each  gallon 
of  water  used,  stirring  it  in,  and  allowing  it  to  settle. 
The  alum  and  borax  react  to  form  a  cloudy  substance 
which  settles  to  the  bottom,  carrying  the  mud  with  it. 
The  clear  water  must  then  be  carefully  poured  or 
dipped  off  from  the  sediment.  A  siphon  is  an  excel- 
lent contrivance  for  such  a  use.  If  a  piece  of  garden 
hose  is  used,  tie  on  a  piece  of  wood  so  that  it  extends 
one  or  two  inches  beyond  the  end,  to  keep  it  z  bove 
the  sediment.  Weight  it  with  a  piece  of  lead. 

When  water  made  hard  by  carbonate  of  lime  is  to 
be  softened,  addition  of  any  of  the  alkalis  will  soften 
it,  for  this  reason.  These  carbonates  will  not  dis- 
solve in  water  unless  it  contains  carbon  dioxide  gas 
in  solution.  The  alkalis  added,  unite  with  the  gas, 
and  the  lime  is  thereby  made  insoluble  and  separated 
from  the  water.  We  do  not  see  it  as  a  rule,  for  there 
is  in  reality,  very  little  of  it,  and  this  little  separates 
in  very  tiny  particles.  Water  which  is  hard  in  the 
clothes  boiler  frequently  causes  trouble  because  of 
tiny  bits  of  lime  which  separate  from  it  and  make 
spots  upon  the  clothes. 

A  spring  situated  in  sandstone  rock  generally 
yields  soft  water  because  the  sandstone  is  so  slightly 
soluble,  but  one  situated  in  limestone  rock  always 
gives  hard  water.  Limestone  is  a  very  common  rock, 


142 


LAUNDRY  WORK  129 

so  many  springs  are  of  hard  water.  A  shallow  well 
is  more  apt  to  yield  soft  water  than  a  deep  one  is,  and 
a  river  has  clearer  and  softer  water  near  its  source, 
where  it  runs  over  rocks,  and  through  uncultivated 
land. 

Occasionally  where  free  alkali  is  added  to  hard 
water,  it  unites  with  greasy  or  oily  matter  in  the  gar- 
ments being  washed,  and  forms  dark  spots  of  soap 
insoluble  in  water.  This  is  prevented  to  some  extent 
by  addition  of  a  very  little  turpentine,  and  boiling 
such  spotted  garments  in  clean  suds  may  dissolve  out 
the  stains  if  they  have  formed.  This  happens  so  sel- 
dom that  the  use  of  soda  in  laundry  work  (with  cau- 
tion) for  softening  water  is  still  to  be  recommended 

Washing  powders  are  usually  composed  for  the 
most  part  of  washing  soda,  and  as  they  cost  more  than 
soda,  it  is  rather  better  to  buy  the  latter.  Moreover, 
the  strength  of  the  alkali  may  be  more  accurately 
judged. 

Water  varies  greatly  in  hardness,  so  it  is  difficult  to 
give  exact  rules  for  softening  it,  though  I  am  often 
asked  for  them.  In  general,  for  moderately  hard 
water  use: 

i  level  tablespoonful  of  sal  soda  to  i  gallon 

water. 
%  level  tablespoonful  of  powdered  lye  to  i 

gallon  water. 

i  level  tablespoonful  of   borax  to  i  gallon 
water. 


143 


130          CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

Do  not  use  ammonia  with  very  hot  water,  for  heat 
liberates  the  ammonia  gas,  which  is  thus  lost. 

Some  students  have  thus  described  the  use  of  ashes 
from  hard  wood : 

Add  a  quart  or  more  of  water  to  a  quart  of  ashes. 
Boil  it  a  few  minutes,  adding  more  water  if  necessary. 
Then  add  sufficient  water  to  make  a  gallon.  Let  it 
settle,  then  pour  off  the  water  and  strain  it.  Put 
enough  of  it  in  the  wash  water  to  secure  a  good  suds 
with  soap.  The  water  dissolves  the  potash  (potas- 
sium carbonate)  from  the  ashes.  So  this  is  an  eco- 
nomical method  of  getting  this  alkali. 

I  have  had  many  interesting  letters  on  the  subject 
of  laundry  work.  Some  of  the  processes  described 
may  be  new  to  many  of  our  students. 

One  writer  describes  a  method  of  using  paraffine 
in  washing.  She  dissolves  a  bar  of  soap  in  boiling 
water  and  adds  to  it  a  piece  of  paraffine  almost  as 
large  as  a  walnut.  She  uses  this  in  making  a  suds 
with  boiling  water  in  which  the  clothes  are  thoroughly 
boiled  for  twenty  minutes  or  more,  punching  them 
ocassionally.  They  must  be  rinsed  in  several  hot 
waters  to  ensure  the  removal  of  the  paraffine,  but 
she  claims  the  clothes  will  be  beautifully  white. 

A  number  have  advocated  the  use  of  kerosene  in 
laundry  work,  especially  with  very  much  soiled  articles. 
Both  this  and  paraffins  certainly  act  upon  the  oily 
film  which  entangles  the  dirt  and  thus  make  the  wash- 
ing easier.  Ths  objection  to  their  use  is  that  more 


144 


BLUING  131 

soap  and  more  hot  water  and  therefore  more 
fuel  must  be  used.  Two  tablespoonfuls  of  kerosene 
in  a  boiler  of  soapy  water  is  about  the  right  quantity. 
In  this  connection  it  should  be  said  that  when  clothes 
are  taken  from  the  boiler,  they  should  be  put  into 
tepid  water,  and  pushed  well  into  it,  for  lying  in  the 
air  seems  to  set  the  dirt,  probably  because  the  fibres 
contract  as  they  cool,  so  that  foreign  particles  are 
enclosed  in  the  cloth  and  cannot  fall  out  into  the  rinse 
water. 

Kerosene  is  excellent  to  use  in  washing  dish  towels. 
Make  a  strong  soap  suds,  putting  in  a  tablespoonful 
of  oil  to  a  gallon  of  water.  Soap  the  towels  well,  and 
boil  them  in  this  suds  for  half  an  hour  or  so.  '  Then 
wash,  rinse  and  dry  them,  in  the  fresh  air.  Kerosene 
is  somewhat  volatile,  and  its  odor  will  escape  in  time. 
When  kerosene  has  been  used,  the  wringer,  tubs,  etc., 
will  need  very  careful  cleaning  to  remove  any  film  of 
oil  before  it  has  time  to  catch  dust. 

BLUING 

There  are  three  kinds  of  bluing  now  on  the  market. 
The  action  and  disadvantages  of  Prussian  Blue  have 
been  described.  It  gives  a  better  color,  however, 
than  either  of  the  other  two  .  A  second  kind  is  Ultra- 
marine blue.  This,  also,  is  an  iron  compound,  but 
it  does  not  decompose  with  alkali.  It  is  what  we 
often  buy  as  the  "ball  bluing,"  and  is  insoluble  in 
water.  Water,  however,  causes  it  to  break  up  into  very 


145 


132  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

minute  particles  which  spread  through  the  liquid  and 
give  it  a  blue  color.  The  water  must  be  kept  stirred, 
and  one  must  be  careful  in  using  it  that  the  clothes 
do  not  get  streaked.  The  balls  of  bluing  should  be 
tied  up  in  a  cloth  and  washed  from  this  into  the  water. 
It  is  well  to  prepare  it  in  a  separate  dish  and  then  add 
it  to  the  water.  Indigo  blue  is  easier  to  use,  but  does 
not  give  so  good  a  color.  Preparations  of  indigo 
for  laundry  work  may  still  be  obtained. 

Here  is  a  method  of  cleansing  knitted  worsted  goods 
which  was  strongly  recommended.  Wash  the  gar- 
ment in  gasoline,  and  allow  it  to  dry.  Then  shake  it 
well  in  a  tight  box  with  flour  or  fuller's  earth,  allow- 
ing it  to  remain  there  an  hour  or  more.  The  powder 
will  absorb  any.  greasy  or  oily  substance,  and  later 
may  be  shaken  out.  In  using  gasoline  for  cleaning 
in  this  way,  have  a  generous  amount,  and  allow  for 
rinsing  the  articles  well.  The  gasoline  may  be  used 
more  than  once,  for  the  dirt  which  it  contains  will 
settle  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  in  which  it  stands 
and  the  clear  liquid  may  be  poured  off.  Use  it  out 
of  doors,  or  in  a  strong  outward  draft,  that  the  in- 
flammable vapors  it  produces  may  blow  harmlessly 
away. 

To  many  people,  the  word  "chemical"  always 
means  an  acid.  Now,  acids  and  alkalis  differ  so  much 
in  their  properties,  that  it  ic  wise  to  be  able  to  distin- 
guish between  them.  Injuries  due  to  the  use  of  one 
may  frequently  be  remedied  by  prompt  use  of  the 


146 


SOAP  MAKING  133 

other.  Alkalis  are  especially  useful  in  laundry  work 
because  of  their  action  upon  grease  of  most  kinds. 
Some  of  the  salts  formed  with  the  alkali  metals  are 
alkaline  in  reaction.  Among  these  are  washing  and 
cooking  soda. 

HOME   SOAP   MAKING 

All  fats  and  oils  are  compounds  of  certain  fatty 
acids  combined  with  glycerine.  Glycerine  is  easily 
separated  from  this  combination  by  strong  alkalis, 
and  thus  soaps  are  made.  The  glycerine  is  a  by-pro- 
duct in  many  soap  factories,  but  it  is  not  evident  in 
home-made  soap,  being  thrown  away  with  any  waste 
water,  or,  perhaps,  left  in  the  soft  soap.  The  various 
fats  are  composed  of  different  kinds  of  fatty  acids,  so 
we  have  varieties  of  soap  made  from  them. 

Rosin  acts  like  fatty  acids,  for  it  is  able  to  combine 
with  alkali  to  make  rosin  soap.  This  is  good  for 
rough  work,  but  it  is  apt  to  separate  in  hot  water, 
setting  free  the  rosin  acids,  which  may  settle  upon  the 
fabric  being  washed,  giving  it  the  odor  of  rosin  or 
causing  it  to  become  yellow.  It  is  very  objectionable 
when  the  clothes  come  to  be  ironed.  This  rosin  also 
makes  fabrics  likely  to  take  up  dust.  If  the  clothes 
are  well  rinsed,  the  amount  of  rosin  soap  in  ordinary 
yellow  soap  gives  no  trouble. 

I  have  often  been  asked  for  a  recipe  for  home-made 
soap,  and,  too,  I  have  had  many  students  write  me  of 
their  success  in  this  process.  Many  housekeepers 


147 


134  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

keep  and  clarify  the  fats  from  food.  Soap  may 
easily  be  made  from  this,  as  follows: 

Take  a  pound  can  of  lye  (Babbitt's  potash  is  good) 
and  dissolve  it  in  three  pints  of  cold  water.  It  will 
become  quite  hot  as  it  dissolves,  and  care  must  be 
taken  in  adding  the  lye  to  the  water,  as  it  is  apt  to 
spatter,  and  is  likely  to  irritate  the  hands. 

Have  ready  five  pounds  of  clean  fat,  which  has  been 
melted  and  strained  through  cheese-cloth  to  remove 
all  specks  of  brown.  When  the  lye  is  cool,  pour  it 
slowly  on  the  grease,  stirring  it  with  a  stick  until  the 
two  mix,  and  the  liquid  becomes  about  as  thick  as 
honey.  Too  long  stirring  may  cause  the  ingredients 
to  separate. 

Mould  the  soap  in  agate  or  wooden  trays.  If  a 
wooden  box  is  used,  it  should  be  lined  with  several 
thicknesses  of  wrapping  paper.  The  layer  next  the 
soap  should  be  oiled.  The  soap  should  harden  in  a 
moderately  warm  place,  and  then  may  be  cut  into 
cakes.  This  is  the  so-called  "cold  process"  soap.  It 
will  not  be  suitable  for  fine  work  but  improves  with  age. 

Several  students  have  described  to  me  how 
they  remembered  seeing  soap  made  at  home  from 
alkali  obtained  by  leaching  wood  ashes.  The  ashes 
were  put  into  a  large  box  pierced  with  holes,  the 
box  placed  over  the  soap  kettle,  and  hot  water  was 
poured  upon  the  top.  This  alkali  would  make  soft 
soap,  which  would  be  stored  in  barrels.  If  hard  soap 
were  desired,  salt  was  added  to  some  of  the  soft  soap. 


148 


DISH  WASHING  135 

A  reaction  takes  place  by  which  some  of  the  sodium 
in  the  salt  is  combined  with  the  fatty  acids,  sufficient 
hard  soap  being  formed  to  harden  the  mass.  Nowa- 
days, even  when  we  buy  "potash"  we  are  quite  sure 
to  find  that  we  can  make  hard  soap,  for  it  almost 
always  is  chiefly  soda  (caustic  soap). 

Washing  "soda  has  a  great  many  uses,  and  I  am 
frequently  reminded  of  new  ones  by  our  students-. 
I  am  told  how  excellent  it  is  to  put  a  little  in  water 
and  boil  this  in  the  cooking  dishes  on  which  food  has 
hardened  or  burned.  Another  describes  how  she 
cleans  silver  by  boiling  it  with  a  little  soda,  then  rins- 
ing it  in  very  hot  water  and  drying  quickly  and 
thoroughly.  The  wife  of  a  dairy  farmer  assures  me 
that  she  could  never  get  her  creamery  cans  suitably 
clean  without  plenty  of  sal  soda,  which  quickly 
removes  the  butter  fat.  When  we  use  it  in  laundry 
work,  however,  we  must  remember  that,  like  other 
solids,  when  it  dissolves,  a  saturated  solution  forms 
around  each  piece,  and  this  strong  solution  may  in- 
jure anything  on  which  the  pieces  rest.  Therefore 
the  crystals  should  always  be  dissolved,  and  the  solu- 
tion diluted  as  much  as  may  seem  necessary. 

DISH  WASHING 

The  washing  of  dishes  takes  so  much  time  in  every 
house  that  it  is  evidently  a  subject  calling  for  close 
attention.  Nothing  is  more  desirable  than  that  this 
work  be  done  thoroughly  and  well;  still,  it  is  doubtless 


149 


136  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

possible  to  plan  for  it  in  such  a  way  that  time  may 
be  saved  for  other  matters. 

In  the  first  place,  systematic  work  is  sure  to  go 
more  rapidly  than  haphazard  fashions.  The  dishes 
should  be  prepared  for  washing  by  scraping  them  as 
clean  as  possible,  and  some  housekeepers  advocate 
rinsing  off  many  of  them  under  the  hot  or  cold 
water  faucets  before  putting  them  in  the  dish- 
pan.  Hard  water  is  very  unsatisfactory  for  dish 
washing,  and  the  use  of  soda  or  borax  is  a  great  help 
when  soft  water  is  not  available.  Borax  is  not  so 
hard  on  the  hands  as  soda.  Dishes  which  have 
contained  milk  or  eggs  are  better  rinsed  well  in  cool 
water,  for  heat  hardens  the  albumins  so  that  they  are 
removed  with  difficulty. 

Plenty  of  hot,  soapy  water  is  necessary  to  do  tjiis 
work  easily,  and  a  second  dishpan  of  clear,  hot  water 
in  which  to  rinse  the  dishes  is  a  great  help.  Use 
very  little  soap  on  gilt  china,  however. 

There  seems  to  be  a  great  variety  of  opinion  on 
the  subject  of  washing  glass.  Many  housekeepers 
have  expressed  a  preference  for  washing  it  in  cold 
water  rather  than  in  hot.  Where  the  glass  is  not 
at  all  greasy,  this  is  very  well.  Ammonia  or  soda  in 
the  water  helps  to  clean  the  glass  and  makes  it 
lustrous.  Glass  washed  in  cold  water  should  be 
allowed  to  drain  almost  dry  before  it  is  polished. 

One  housekeeper  has  described  to  me  a  wire  basket 
which  she  has  had  made  to  hold  dishes  when  they 


150 


DISH  WASHING  137 

drain,  and  which  is  made  to  fit  into  her  dishpan. 
Fitting  the  dishes  into  this,  she  is  able  to  immerse 
them  in  hot  rinsing  water,  and  then  lift  them  out 
to  dry.  She  finds  the  plan  an  excellent  one. 

Another  student  writes  that  she  has  found  sifted 
coal  ashes  a  most  useful  article  to  use  in  cleaning 
knives.  Another  prefers  sifted  wood  ashes.  These 
most  be  very  carefully  sifted,  so  that  no  hard  bits  be 
left  in,  which  might  scratch  the  articles  polished. 

The  kitchen  dishes  are  usually  the  most  difficult 
to  wash,  and  one  student  describes  a  home-made 
"scrubber"  which  she  declares  is  very  useful.  "Take 
a  broom  apart,  a  good  one,  by  removing  the  wire  and 
letting  the  straw  loose,"  she  says.  "The  upper  part 
of  the  straw  is  then  put  into  boiling  water  and  left 
long  enough  to  soften  it.  Then  the  straws  are  tied 
together  in  bundles  about  two  inches  across,  using  a 
strong  twine.  The  twine  is  pulled  tight,  and  sinks 
into  the  softened  straw,  and  when  dry,  it  does  not 
slip.  A  loop  is  left  for  hanging  the  bundle,  and  the 
straw  is  left  its  whole  length.  These  are  so  long  and 
slender  they  will  reach  into  anything.  They  are  a 
great  saving  on  the  hands,  and  allow  the  use  of  much 
hotter  water." 

Many  of  our  students  recommend  the  use  of  soft 
paper  in  cleaning  greasy  dishes,  kettles,  and  pans, 
The  papers  may  be  burned,  thus  disposing  of  much 
grease  which  would  otherwise  find  its  way  into  the 
kitchen  sink  drain. 


151 


138  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

LATENT  HEAT 

The  subject  of  latent  heat,  described  on  page  12, 
has  proved  very  puzzling  to  many.  It  is  certainly 
a  strange  idea  at  first,  that  heat  does  anything  more 
than  make  things  warm.  Still,  a  moment's  considera- 
tion recalls  to  mind  that  heat  can  do  many  other 
things.  Heat  causes  chemical  change,  for  substances 
are  often  changed  by  strong  heat.  Heat  causes  most 
substances  to  expand.  If  a  sealed  can  of  any  sub- 
stance is  strongly  heated,  it  will  probably  explode. 
Heat  causes  liquids  to  evaporate,  and  solids  to  melt. 

If  a  liquid  is  placed  in  an  open  dish  on  a  source 
of  heat,  its  temperature  will  rise  until  it  begins  to 
boil.  After  this,  it  gets  no  hotter,  no  matter  how 
much  heat  is  applied,  unless  the  liquid  is  becoming 
more  dense  as  it  boils,  as  would  be  the  case  with  a 
syrup,  for  example.  The  heat  it  receives  is  all 
expended  in  changing  the  liquid  into  vapor,  or,  as  we 
say,  changing  the  "state  of  matter."  The  particles 
(molecules)  are  driven  farther  apart  by  the  heat.  A 
cubic  inch  of  water  makes  a  cubic  foot  of  steam. 
The  amount  of  heat  necessary  to  produce  the  change 
from  liquid  to  gas  varies  with  different  substances. 
Water  requires  a  very  large  amount.  Four  times  as 
much  heat  is  required  to  change  an  ounce  of  water  into 
steam  as  to  vaporize  the  same  amount  of  alcohol. 
If  heat  is  applied  rapidly,  the  liquid  will  boil  rapidly, 
but  it  does  not  affect  the  temperature.  The  heat 


152 


LATENT  HEAT  139 

used  in  this  way  is  not  lost,  but  is  stored  up  in  the 
vapor  as  latent  heat.  The  steam  is  no  hotter  than 
the  boiling  water,  and  heat  added  keeps  it  from 
becoming  liquid.  When  vapor  condenses  and  changes 
back  to  liquid,  the  latent  heat  is  given  out,  and 
warms  surrounding  things.  In  fact,  the  vapor  can- 
not condense  unless  the  latent  heat  it  contains  is 
removed,  except  under  pressure.  This  latent  heat 
makes  steam  an  excellent  medium  for  heating  build- 
ings, as  it  contains  so  much  heat  and  passes  through 
pipes  rapidly.  Not  only  is  the  steam  itself  hot,  but 
it  carries  a  vast  amount  of  heat  stored  up,  to  be 
liberated  in  the  cooler  regions. 

Latent  heat  is  stored  up  in  water,  also,  and  is  liber- 
ated when  the  water  becomes  ice.  This  is  seldom 
apparent,  for  far  less  heat  is  thus  stored  in  water 
than  in  steam,  and,  too,  the  temperature  of  freezing 
water  is  low.  The  heat  given  out  when  water  freezes 
is  at  32°  F,  while  that  given  out  when  steam  condenses 
is  at  212°  F.  Still,  a  cellar  may  be  several  degrees 
warmer  if  it  contains  a  tank  of  water  which  freezes 
than  if  the  water  were  not  there.  The  temperature 
may  keep  about  32°  F.  where  otherwise  it  might 
go  to  26°  or  less. 

A  room  is  cooled  in  warm  weather  by  sprinkling 
water  upon  the  floor.  The  evaporation  of  the  water 
takes  much  heat  from  the  air,  storing  it  in  the 


153 


140  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

vapor  produced.  Britannia  and  some  other  metals 
of  which  pitchers,  teapots,  etc.,  are  made  will  melt 
if  placed  on  a  hot  stove.  If,  however,  they  contain 
water,  this  is  not  likely  to  occur,  for  the  water  can- 
not be  heated  above  its  boiling  point,  and  this  is  iar 
below  the  melting  point  of  the  metal,  and  keeps  the 
temperature  of  the  metal  low  enough  for  safety. 
This  reminds  me  of  an  experiment  I  once  saw  where 
candy  was  actually  made  in  a  pasteboard  box.  The 
syrup  never  became  hot  enough  to  scorch  the  paper, 
and  thus  the  paper  itself  was  kept  fairly  cool. 

USE  OF  THE  THERMOMETER 

A  kitchen  thermometer  may  be  bought  of  any 
dealer  in  the  better  class  of  kitchen  goods.  The 
floating  dairy  thermometers  are  convenient.  One 
to  register  212°  F,  may  be  obtained  from  the  School 
for  50  cents.  A  thermometer  made  to  register  oven 
temperatures  is  more  expensive,  one  registering  to 
600°  F.  costing  $1.50.  Various  uses  of  the  ther- 
mometer are  described  in  Principles  of  Cookery  and 
Home  Care  of  ike  Sick,  but  there  are  many  times  in 
the  kitchen  when  it  is  of  assistance,  as  in  getting  the 
right  density  for  syrups  in  candy  making,  for  syrups 
in  preserving,  and  the  right  temperatures  for  raising 
bread,  making  soups,  custards,  etc. 

Some  uses  of  the  thermometer  in  the  kitchen  are 
the  following,  described  in  Miss  Parloa's  "Home 
Economics": 


154 


BREAD  MAKING  141 

Olive  oil  is  liquid  above  75°.  If  above  this  tem- 
perature it  shows  solid  specks,  making  it  look  cloudy, 
you  may  be  sure  it  is  adulterated  with  some  fat  having 
a  higher  melting  point. 

Butter  should  melt  at  94°.  If  it  does  not,  you  may 
know  it  is  adulterated  with  suet  or  some  other  fat 
having  a  higher  melting  point.  v 

BREAD  MAKING 

The  composition  and  manufacture  of  bread  are 
subjects  which  have  been  given  much  study.  The 
carbon  dioxide  which  serves  to  lighten  the  dough 
raised  with  }^east  is  produced  at  the  expense  of 
some  of  the  starch  of  the  flour.  This  starch  is 
completely  driven  from  the  loaf  as  carbon  dioxide 
gas  and  alcohol  during  the  baking.  The  loss  is  esti- 
mated at  about  2  per  cent.  Attempts  have  been 
made  in  large  bakeries  to  save  the  alcohol,  but  no 
economical  method  has  been  devised.  About  fifty 
years  ago,  German  chemists-  in  studying  the  question 
estimated  that  the  food  materials  lost  in  twenty- 
four  hours,  when  bread  is  raised  with  yeast,  was 
sufficient  to  supply  bread  to  400,000  people!  These 
figures  were  certainly  startling  to  the  thrifty  Germans, 
and  the  possibility  of  producing  the  carbon  dioxide 
gas  in  some  less  extravagant  manner  was  studied 
with  considerable  care  in  German  laboratories,  and 
also  at  Harvard  University  in  America.  Baking 


155 


H2  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

powders  are  the  result  of  these  investigations. 
Gluten  is  not  changed  chemically  by  the  action  of  the 
yeast  or  of  the  carbon  dioxide,  but  it  is  physically 
changed — the  escape  of  the  gases  stretching  it  out 
into  fibres.  Gluten,  like  other  proteids,  hardens  when 
heated.  Baking  thus  makes  the  porous  condition  of 
the  dough  permanent. 

MAKING  BAKING  POWDER 

Several  students  have  sent  me  recipes  they  like 
to  use  for  making  baking  powder.  The  claim  is 
made  that  these  cost  rather  less  than  the  kinds  that 
can  be  bought,  and  also  that  they  are  much  more 
effective.  Here  is  one: 

y2  Ib.  cream  of  tartar. 

y±  Ib.  cooking  soda  (bicarbonate  of  soda). 

yi  Ib.  corn  starch. 

The  best  quality  of  each  must  be  bought.  Sift 
them  together  at  least  a  dozen  times,  the  last  time 
into  baking  powder  boxes.  Be  careful  to  seal  up  all 
cracks  by  pasting  over  them  paper  strips.  About  one 
half  as  much  of  this  is  required  as  for  the  average 
powder  sold. 

These  proportions  would  probably  give  a  slight 
excess  of  acid.  We  might  combine  2^  parts  of  the 
acid  salt  with  one  part  of  soda  if  our  salts  are  chemi- 
cally pure.  The  corn  starch  is  added  to  keep  the  soda 
and  acid  salt  from  forming  quite  such  an  intimate 


156 


DISTILLATION  143 

mixture.  The  two  salts  in  contact  would  very 
slowly  combine,  and  the  baking  powder  thus  lose  its 
strength. 

DISTILLATION 

A  few  more  words  might  be  said  on  the  subject  of 
distillation.  I  am  sometimes  asked  to  explain  more 
fully  the  term  "destructive  distillation."  When  a 
complex  substance  like  wood  or  coal  is  heated  some 
of  its  ingredients  are  made  volatile  at  the  high  tem- 
perature,-and  so  escape  'as  gases.  The  wood  itself 
is  broken  up  into  simpler  substances.  It  is  plain 
that  in  this  process  the  original  substance  is  lost  as 
such,  new  substances  taking  its  place,  and  we  there- 
fore speak  of  the  process  as  destructive  distillation. 

When  water  containing  various  salts  or  gases  in 
solution  is  heated,  the  gases  will  be  given  off  as  the 
temperature  rises.  At  the  boiling  point,  the  water 
itself  will  begin  to  pass  off  as  vapor.  The  salts  will 
not  vaporize  unless  much  more  strongly  heated.  If 
the  steam  be  collected  and  cooled,  it  will  condense  to 
form  pure  water.  This  in  an  illustration  of  simple 
distillation.  If  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  water  be 
heated  some  of  the  alcohol  will  vaporize  before  the 
water.  It  may  in  this  way  be  separated  from  the 
water,  and  this  process  is  called  fractional  distilla- 
tion. This  is  the  principle  employed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  whiskey,  etc. 


157 


.K44  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

COMPOSITION  OF  GAS 

The  complex  nature  of  cbal  gas  is  shown  by  the 
following  table,  which  represents  an  average  sample: 

Hydro-carbon  vapors 0.6 

Heavy  hydro-carbons 4.4 

Carbon  dioxide 3.4 

Carbon  monoxide 10.0 

Methane  (CH4) 30.6 

Oxygen 0.3 

Hydrogen • 45-9 

Nitrogen 4.8 


100% 


Of  these,  the  hydro-carbons,  carbon  monoxide, CH^ 
and  hydrogen  are  combustible. 

Coals  always  contain  more  or  less  sulphur,  \.  hich  is 
a  great  trouble  to  the  gas  manufacturer.  It  fre- 
quently happens  that  some  of  it  gets  into  the  gas. 
If  such  gas  escapes,  the  sulphur  compounds  unite 
with  the  silverware,  giving  is  a  coating  of  dark 
sulphide  of  silver.  If  silver  tarnishes  quickly,  it  is 
an  indication  of  a  leak  of  gas  or  sewer  gas.  It  is 
estimated  that,  a  ton  of  coal  should  yield  10,000  feet 
of  gas,  1,400  Ibs.  of  coke  (35  bushels),  12  gallons 
of  tar,  4  Ibs.  of  ammonia. 

More  than  six  hundred  products  are  obtained  from 
the  coal  tar.  The  nature  and  uses  of  these  products 
would  form  an  interesting  topic  for  futher  study. 


158 


COMPOSITION  OF  GAS  145 

The  composition  of  water  gas  is  somewhat  as  follows : 

Hydro-carbon  vapors 1.2 

Heavy  hydro-carbons 12.0 

Carbon  dioxide 3.0 

Carbon  monoxide 28.0 

Oxygen 0.4 

Hydrogen 31.4 

CH4    (Methane) , 20.8 

Nitrogen 3.2 

100% 

Notice  that  this  gas  contains  less  methane  and 
hydrogen  (which  are  combustible),  and  their  place 
is  taken  by  carbon  monoxide,  which,  although  com- 
bustible, is  very  poisonous.  There  is  some  carbon 
monoxide  in  ordinary  illuminating  gas  but  not  nearly 
so  much.  The  water  gas  has  a  strong  odor  ffom  the 
hydro-carbons  (crude  gasoline)  added  to  make  it 
luminous,  but  comparatively  little  of  it  in  the  air  is 
likely  to  produce  very  injurious  effects  upon  living 
things,  plants  and  animals  alike.  It  is  the  most  poison- 
ous substance  that  comes  into  the  house.  It  is  estimat- 
ed that  about  fourteen  per  cent  of  the  gas  manu- 
factured escapes  into  the  earth  through  leaky  gas 
mains.  In  passing  through  the  soil  the  odorous  part 
of  water  gas  may  be  strained  out,  so  that  it  becomes 
odorless.  Whole  families  have  been  poisoned  from 
deodorized  water  gas  leaking  into  the  house  by  way  of 


159 


146  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

the  cellar.    This  emphasizes  the  importance  of  having 
a   perfectly    tight  cellar,  with    cemented  walls    and 
floor,  and  the  importance  of  ventilating  the  cellar,  for 
the  cellar  air  finds  its  way  to  the  rooms  above. 
Natural  gas  contains  practically  no  carbon  monoxide. 

SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION 

We  often  hear  of  fires  apparently  "starting  them- 
selves." Such  cases  are  due  to  accumulation  of  heat 
produced  by  slow  oxidation.  If  a  pile  of  oily  rags, 
cotton  waste,  etc., be  allowed  to  stand  for  a  time,  the 
oily  matter  will  begin  to  combine  slowly  with  oxygen. 
This  may  occur  in  the  inner  part  of  the  heap,  and 
the  outer  layers  retain  the  heat  until,  perhaps,  the 
kindling  point  of  some  of  the  inflammable  oils  is  reach- 
ed, when  the  whole  mass  will  burst  into  flame.  This  is 
much  more  likely  to  happen  with  linseed  oil  and 
certain*  other  vegetable  "drying  oils, "  as  they  unite 
readily  with  oxygen,  and  so  become  hard  and  varnish- 
like.  The  mineral  oils  (paraffine  oil)  do  not  combine 
with  oxygen  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  probably 
will  not  cause  spontaneous  combustion.  Still,  all 
oily  cloths  should  be  burned  or  disposed  of  in  some 
safe  fashion. 

CONSERVATION  OF  ENERGY 

An  interesting  and  important  principle,  ex- 
plained on  page  23  of  Part  I,  and  again  on  page  no 
of  Part  III,  is  Conservatism.  This  principle  has  been 
established  by  countless  experiments,  but  it  is  not 


160 


CONSERVATION  OF  ENERGY  147 

one  that  the  housekeeper  can  well  investigate.  It 
is,  however,  one  she  must  continually  bear  in  mind. 
Matter  and  energy  can  never  be  created  or  destroyed ; 
both  may  be  transformed,  and  may  therefore  appear 
in  many  different  ways.  The  voltaic  cell  is  a  simple 
device  for  transforming  chemical  energy  into  elec- 
trical force.  The  chemical  affinity  of  two  substances 
causes  them  to  unite  under  the  right  conditions. 
This  union  results  in  the  liberation  of  energy, -which 
may  appear  as  heat,  light,  or  electricity.  When 
coal  and  oxygen  unite,  we  get  both  heat  and  light 
as  a  result.  Chemical  union  usually  produces  heat. 

The  energy  of  our  bodies  we  get  solely  from  the 
food  we  absorb.  We  should  eat  such  foods  as  best 
give  us  the  needed  energy,  and  we  should  learn  to 
expend  this  energy  wisely,  as  we  have  but  a  limited 
amount  of  it.  One  student  wisely  comments  upon 
this,  as  follows: 

"In  the  economic  plan  of  housekeeping,  it  would 
be  well  if  each  one  would  endeavor  to  realize  that 
she  is  a  part  of  the  machinery  of  the  household,  and 
that  to  be  continually  on  the  move  is  as  disastrous 
to  the  equilibrium  of  the  home  as  it  is  to  rust,  as  it 
were,  for  want  of  use.  A  given  amount  of  rest  each 
day  is  a  true  part  of  economy.  ^  Then,  too,  in  the 
daily  regime,  there  are  ways  and  ways  of  doing  things. 
Always  choose  the  easiest,  if  it  conflicts  not  with  the 
quality  of  the  work  done.  For  example,  do  not 
stand  while  paring  potatoes,  apples,  etc.  It  is  just 


161 


148  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

as  easy  to  do  this  work  sitting,  and  you  can  then  get 
some  rest  at  the  same  time.  Don't  worry — to  worry 
is  a  very  extravagant  thing,  for  it  uses  up  valuable 
force,  and  does  no  good  at  all." 


162 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  149 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Chemistry  of  Cooking  and  Cleaning,  Richards  and  Elliott, 
($1.00,  postage  8c.) 

Chemistry   of  Daily   Life,    Lassar-Cohn.      ($1.50,  postage 

IOC.) 

Chemistry   of   Plant   and   Animal   Life,    Snyder.     ($1.25, 

postage  roc.) 

Chemistry  of  Cooking,  Williams.     ($1.50,  postage  120.) 
Chemistry  of  Common  Life,  Johnston.     ($2.00,   postage 

i6c.) 

Chemistry  of  Life  and  Health.  C.  W.  Kimmins.     ($1.00, 

postage  ice.) 

First  Lessons  in  Food  and  Diet,  Ellen  H.  Richards.    (300., 

postage  4C.) 

Laboratory  Notes  in  Household  Chemistry,  H.  T.  Vulte 

and  G.  A.  Goodell. 

Laundry  Work,  Juniata  L.  Sheppard.     (5oc.,  postage  6c.) 
Story  of  a  Lump  of  Coal,  Martin.     (350.,  postage  40.) 
Sanitary  and  Applied  Chemistry,  Bailey.     ($1.40,  postage 

I2C.) 

Elements  of  Chemistry,  R.  P.  Williams.     ($1.10,  postage 

IOC.) 

An  Introduction  to  General  Chemistry,  Smith.  ($1.25, 
postage  i2C.) 

Essentials  of  Chemical  Physiology,  Halliburton.  ($1.50, 
postage  i4C.) 

First  Course  in  Physics,  Millikan  and  Gale.  ($1.25,  post- 
age I4C.) 

Introduction  to  Organic  Chemistry,  Ira  Remsen.  ($1.20, 
postage  i2c.) 

Organic  Industrial  Chemistry,  S.  P.  Sadtler.  ($5.00 
postage  28c.) 


163 


I5o          CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

U.  S.  GOVERNMENT  BULLETINS 

Industrial  Alcohol:  Sources  and  Manufacture.  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  268  (free).  . 

Industrial  Alcohol :  Uses  and  Statistics.  Farmers'  Bulletin 
No.  269  (free). 

Modern  Conveniences  for  the  Farm  Home.  Farmers'  Bul- 
letin No.  270  (free). 

Composition  of  American  Food  Material.  Bulletin  No.  28. 
Office  of  Experiment  Station.  (Price  5C.) 

Some  Forms  of  Food  Adulteration  and  Simple  Methods 
for  their  Detection.  Bulletin  No.  100,  Bureau  of  Chemistry. 
(Price  ice.) 

Arsenic  in  Wall  Paper  and  Fabrics  Bulletin  No.  86, 
Bureau  of  Chemistry.  (Price  5c  ) 

Chemical  Composition  of  Apples  and  Cider.  Bulletin  No. 
88,  Bureau  of  Chemistry.  (Price  5C.) 

Note. — For  the  free  bulletins,  send  to  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. ;  to  obtain  the  for  sale  bulletins, 
send  coin  or  money  order  to  the  Superintendent  of  Documents 
Washington,  D.  C. 


164 


SUPPLEMENTAL  PROGRAM  -  ARRANGED  FOR  CLASS 
STUDY  ON 

CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

BY  MAURICE  LEBOSQUET,  S.  B. 
Director,  American  School  of  Home  Economics 

As  in  the  study  of  chemistry  and  physics  so  much  emphasis 
is  placed  on  laboratory  work,  the  following  supplementary 
program  is  made  up  chiefly  of  simple  experiments,  such  as 
may  be  performed  with  little  or  no  apparatus.  When  heat 
is  required,  it  may  be  supplied  by  a  small  gas  stove,  a  one 
burner  oil  stove,  or  an  alcohol  lamp.  The  lamp  of  a  chafing 
dish  might  be  used.  A  thermometer  will  be  loaned  by  the 
School  for  6  cents  postage,  or  one  may  be  purchased  for 
50  cents. 

MEETING  I 
(Study  pages  1-29) 
Water 

To  show  that  ordinary  water  has  gases  dissolved  in  it. 
See  experiment  on  page  2.  The  gas  dissolved  in  water  is 
not  exactly  of  the  same  composition  as  air.  It  usually  con- 
tains more  oxygen  and  more  carbon  dioxide  than  ordinary 
atmospheric  air,  varying  somewhat  with  the  sources  of  the 
water.  This  dissolved  gas  enables  fish  and  other  marine 
animals  to  live.  A  fish  cannot  live  in  water  that  has  lost  its 
dissolved  air  by  being  boiled.  It  is  drowned  just  as  human 
beings  are,  because  of  lack  of  oxygen. 
Water  of  Crystallization 

Make  crystals  as  described  on  page  5.  A  certain  definite 
amount  of  water  is  present  in  the  crystals  which  varies  with 
each  substance.  Clear  crystals  are  pure  or  nearly  so.  The 
"mother  liquor"  remaining  after  the  crystals  are  formed 


165 


152  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

contains  most  of  the  impurities;  thus  crystallization  is  a 
method  of  purification. 

The  water  in  the  crystals  of  washing  soda  may  be  shown 
by  heating  some  in  a  tin  dish.  The  crystals  will  melt  and 
on  continued  heating,  steam  will  be  given  off.  Not  all  crys- 
tals contain  water  of  crystallization, — for  example,  common 
salt,  cane  sugar. 

Boiling  Point 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  convince  any  "domestic"  that 
water  boiling  furiously  is  no  hotter  than  when  it  is  just  barely 
boiling.  It  is  instructive  to  prove  this  with  a  thermometer. 
Also  observe  that  the  "simmering"  temperature  is  very 
nearly  the  same  as  the  water  when  boiling,  so  that  cooking 
may  be  done  nearly  as  rapidly  by  simmering  and  with  far 
less  fuel. 

Latent  Heat 

This  is  a  somewhat  perplexing  phenomenon.  We  all  recog- 
nize that  steam  is  hot,  but  that  it  contains  a  much  greater 
supply  of  heat  than  hot  water  is  not  so  easy  to  realize.  The 
following  may  make  this  a  little  clearer:  In  a  small  sauce 
pan  or  dish  put  about  two  tablespoonfuls  of  water.  Heat  it 
to  the  boiling  point  and  then  continue  the  boiling  until  it 
has  all  boiled  away.  Note  ( i )  how  long  it  takes  to  raise  the 
water  to  the  boiling  point,  and  (2)  how  much  time  is  required 
to  convert  it  all  into  steam. 

To  start  the  boiling,  the  water  is  raised  from  about  6o°F. 
to  212°  F.,  or  through  152°.  In  converting  the  water  into 
steam,  there  is  no  rise  in  temperature,  but  the  heat  has 
to  be  applied  for  a  much  longer  period.  On  page  12  is  the 
statement  that  "966  times  as  much  heat  is  required  to  change 
a  given  quantity  of  water  into  steam  as  to  raise  it  one  degree 
F.  "  but  the  water  in  this  experiment  was  raised  150°.  As 
966  divided  by  152  equals  6  (plus),  we  might  expect  that  it 
would  take  six  times  as  long  to  boil  the  water  away  as  to 


166 


PROGRAM  153 

raise  it  to  the  boiling  point.  Of  course  no  exact  results  can 
be  expected  in  this  experiment,  as  not  all  the  heat  ap- 
plied is  absorbed  by  the  water  and  used  in  boiling  it,  but  the 
experiment  will  show  that  the  steam  must  contain  a  great 
deal  of  heat. 

A  similar  experiment  will  show  the  latent  heat  contained 
in  water  in  reference  to  ice.  If  a  teaspoonful  of  ice  cold 
water  and  an  amount  of  snow  or  ice  which  when  melted 
would  make  a  teaspoonful,  each  be  added  to  a  glass  of  water 
of  the  same  temperature,  it  will  be  found  that  the  pulverized 
ice  or  snow  lowers  the  temperature  much  more  than  the  tea- 
spoonful  of  ice-cold  water.  That  is  to  say,  a  great  deal  more 
heat  would  have  to  be  added  to  the  "ice  and  water  mixture, " 
to  bring  it  back  to  the  original  temperature,  than  to  the  "ice 
cold  water  and  water  mixture.  " 

Oxygen  in  the  Air 

To  show  that  tfce  atmosphere  contains  a  gas  which  is  used 
up  in  combustion,  attach  a  candle  an  inch  and  a  half  long  to 
the  bottom  of  a  saucer  with  some  of  the  melted  wax.  Pour 
about  one-fourth  of  a  glass  of  water  into  the  dish,  light  the 
candle  and  invert  the  glass  (one  with  straight  sides)  over 
the  lighted  candle.  The  flame  will  grow  dim  and  soon  be 
extinguished  and  the  water  will  rise  about  one-fifth  way  up 
the  glass.  This  shows  a  number  of  things.  In  burning, 
the  carbon  of  the  hydrocarbons  of  which  the  candle  is  made 
unites  with  the  oxygen,  making  the  gas  carbon  dioxide. 
This  takes  up  the  same  volume  as  the  oxygen  out  of  which 
it  was  formed,  but  the  water  quickly  dissolves  the  carbon 
dioxide  and  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  water 
outside  the  glass  forces  it  up  into  the  partial  vacuum  formed. 

The  nitrogen  of  the  air  remains,  but  this  will  not  "support 
combustion,"  and  so  the  candle  is  extinguished. 

Manufacturing  Water 

That  the  burning  of  a  candle  produce61  water  as  well  as 


167 


154  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

carbon  dioxide  may  be  shown  by  placing  the  flame  against 
a  window  pane.  A  film  of  moisture  may  be  seen,  also,  when 
a  lamp  having  a  cold  chimney  is  first  lighted.  The  burning 
of  a  match  will  show  water  when  it  is  placed  against  a  cold 
surface,  but  this  experiment  is  not  so  conclusive,  for  the 
wood  may  contain  moisture.  The  candle  contains  no  moist- 
ure, so  the  water  must  have  been  manufactured  by  the 
burning. 

Atmospheric  Pressure 

We  have  had  one  example  of  the  result  of  atmospheric 
pressure  in  the  candle  experiment.  The  working  of  a  siphon 
i«  an  interesting  example.  Take  a  small  rubber  tube,  fill  it 
with  water,  pinch  both  ends,  put  one  end  in  a  glass  of  water, 
and  lower  the  other  end  into  an  empty  glass  at  a  foot  lower 
level;  release  the  pressure  of  the  fingers,  and  the  water  will 
run  from  the  tube,  apparently  going  "up  hill"  over  the  edge 
of  the  glass.  The  explanation  may  be  found  in  any  text 
book  on  physics.  This  is  a  good  way  to  empty  wash  tubs, 
etc.,  using  a  piece  of  rubber  hose. 

Carbon  Dioxide 

Light  a  splinter  of  wood  and  let  it  burn  in  a  wide-mouthed 
bottle  until  it  is  extinguished.  Add  a  tablespoonful  of  clear 
lime  water  (obtained  at  any  drug  store,  or  add  a  small  lump 
of  lime  to  warm  water  in  a  fruit  jar,  stir  well,  cover  and  let 
settle  over  night) ,  close  the  bottle,  and  shake  the  lime  water 
around.  It  will  grow  milky  from  the  formation  of  carbonate 
of  lime  (calcium),  with  which  we  are  more  familiar  in  the 
forms  of  chalk,  marble,  and  clam  shells. 

Again  with  any  sort  of  a  tube  (a  straw),  blow  into  a  little 
clear  lime  water.  It  will  grow  milky,  showing  that  the 
breath  contains  carbon  dioxide.  If  you  will  continue  to 
blow  into  the  lime  water  for  a  long  time,  the  milkiness 
will  be  seen  to  disappear.  This  is  because  the  carbonate  of 
lime  is  dissolved  by  the  excess  of  carbon  dioxide  in  the  water, 


168 


PROGRAM  155 

after  the  lime  water  (hydrate  of  lime)  is  all  changed  into 
carbonate  of  lime.  This  point  comes  up  in  connection  with 
hard  water  and  laundry  work. 

Flash  Point  of  Kerosene 

The  flash  point  of  a  sample  of  kerosene  may  be  determined 
approximately  by  placing  about  two  teaspoonfuls  in  a  cup, 
then  adding  hot  water  to  a  bowl  of  water  in  which  the  cup 
containing  the  oil  is  placed.  Stir  the  kerosene  with  a  ther- 
mometer, and  apply  a  lighted  taper  to  the  surface  of  the  oil 
from  time  to  time  as  the  temperature  of  the  oil  rises.  A 
quick  flash  over  the  surface  of  the  kerosene  will  show  the 
flash  point.  Read  the  temperature  indicated  by  the  ther- 
mometer. 

References:  Chemistry  of  Daily  Life,  by  Lassar-Conn.  Chapter 
I,  Atmosphere,   Combustion.    ($1.50,   postage 

I2C.) 

'Story  of  a   Lump   of   Coal,  •  by  Martin.      (35C., 

postage  6c.) 

Air  and  Water  as  Food,  in  Plain  Words  about 
Food,  by  Ellen  H.  Richards.  ($1.00,  postage 

IOC.) 

Sanitary  and  Applied  Chemistry,  by  Bailey, 
Chapter  on  The  Atmosphere,  Fuels.  ($1.40 
postage  i2c.) 

Topics:          The  Formation  of  Coal  —  See  any  good  encyclo- 
pedia and  geologies. 

Fire  Worship  —  See  "Popular  Science  Monthly," 
Volume  X,  page  17,  also  "Public  Opinion/8 
Volume  XIV,  page  251. 


169 


l$6          CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

MEETING  II 

(Study  pages  29-55) 

If  the  Food  Course  is  being  taken,  some  of  the  experiments 
here  suggested  might  better  be  postponed  until  the  lessons 
on  Principles  of  Cookery  or  Food  and  Dietetics. 
Starch 

The  blue  color  produced  by  a  tincture  of  iodine  (obtained 
at  the  drug  store)  on  the  faintest  trace  of  starch  is  a  very 
delicate  test  for  starch.  Cooked  starch  shows  the  test  much 
better  than  uncooked.  Note  that  the  blue  color  is  destroyed 
by  heat,  but  appears  again  when  the  test  is  cool.  Test 
various  foods  —  grains,  vegetables,  fruits,  and  nuts  for 
starch. 

The  conversion  of  starch  into  dextrin  may  be  shown  by 
heating  a  little  flour  or  corn  starch  in  a  hot  oven  for  half  an 
hour  or  so,  or  until  it  becomes  a  deep  yellow  color.  Dis- 
solve in  a  little  cold  water,  filter  out  the  unchanged  starch 
by  pouring  through  absorbent  cotton  in  a  funnel;  test  the 
filtered  liquid  to  see  if  there  is  still  any  unchanged  starch  in  it. 
Add  double  the  quantity  of  alcohol  to  a  part  of  the  liquid. 
The  dextrin  will  be  precipitated,  i.  e.,  thrown  out  of  solution 
and  will  settle  as  a  fine  powder,because  dextrin  is  not  soluble 
in  alcohol.  The  water  solution  should  be  concentrated  by 
boiling  if  much  is  used. 

That  the  starch  is  changed  by  heating  with  butter  or  other 
fat  may  be  shown  by  adding  two  teaspoonfuls  of  flour  to 
one  teaspoonful  of  very  hot  butter,  stirring  for  some  time. 
Remove  a  drop  on  a  piece  of  white  paper  and  test  it  with 
tincture  of  iodine. 

Make  starch  paste  by  mixing  a  quarter  of  a  teaspoonful  of 
laundry  or  corn  starch  with  a  spoonful  of  water  and  adding 
it  to  a  cup  of  boiling  water  and  boil.  To  about  half  a  glass 
of  this  when  it  has  cooled  to  body  temperature  (100°  F)  add 
a  half  teaspoonful  of  saliva.  Keep  the  mixture  warm  (not 


170 


PROGRAM  157 

hot)  for  some  time  by  placing  it  in  warm  water.  From 
time  to  time  test  small  portions  with  iodine  solution  as  it 
grows  clearer.  Add  saliva  to  a  portion  of  hot  starch;  to  a 
cold  portion  testing  as  before. 

Gluten 

May  be  the  gluten  separates  from  flomr  as  described  on 
page  49,  or  better  as  described  in  "Food  and  Dietetics"  page 
41.  Bake  part  of  it  in  an  oven. 

Experiments  with  other  proteids  also  described  on  pages 
41  and  43  of  "Food  and  Dietetics." 

Experiments  with  yeast  described  on  page  45  of  "House- 
hold Bacteriology, "  Part  I. 

"Digestion  is  Synonymous  with  Solution" 

This  statement  is  made  on  page  35.  To  show  the  relation 
of  the  length  of  time  required  to  make  a  solution,  take  two 
equal  portions  of  any  crystals,  such  as  washing  soda  or  alum, 
and  pulverize  one  portion.  Stir  each  in  a  glass  of  water  and 
observe  the  tim3  for  each  in  dissolving.  Note  that  the  time 
required  for  complete  solution  is  determined  by  the  largest 
crystal. 

This  experiment  shows  how  important  a  part  of  digestion 
chewing  is  and  that  the  teeth  are  primarily  digestive  organs. 

Cooking  Meat 

See  experiment  on  pages  50  and  51. 
Mineral  Matter — Gelatin 
See  experiments  on  page  53. 

References:   Chemistry   of   Cookery,    by   Mattieu    Williams 

Pages  19-31.    Albumen.    ($1.50,  postage  i6c.) 

Chemistry  of  Daily  Life,  by  Lassar-Conn.     Pages 

56-66.  Digestion  of  Food.    ($i. 50,  postage  loc.) 

(Select  and  send  to  the  School  a  composite  set  of  answers 

to  Test  Questions  on   Part   I,  and  report  on  rupplemental 

work  and  experiments.) 


171 


158  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

MEETING  III 

(Study  pages  55-65) 

Cleaning:   Acids,  Alkalies,  and  Salts 

Strips  of  litmus  paper  may  be  obtained  at  a  drug  store  or 
will  be  sent  from  the  School  on  request.  Moisten  the  blue 
paper  in  vinegar,  le*mon  juice,  tomato,  solution  of  cream  of 
tartar,  etc.,  and  then  in  ammonia  (even  the  vapor  will 
change  it),  in  solution  of  washing  soda,  baking  soda,  borax, 
soap,  and  various  washing  powders.  If  the  paper  is  washed 
in  running  water  after  being  turned  blue  with  ammonia,  a 
test  for  acid  may  usually  be  found  in  milk,  molasses,  and 
sometimes  butter.  One  piece  of  paper  will  be  found  to  turn 
from  blue  to  red  and  back  again  to  blue  an  indefinite  number 
of  times  when  wet  with  solutions  of  acids  and  alkalies  alter- 
nately. 

Buy  five  cents'  worth  of  hydrochloric  acid  and  a  little 
caustic  soda  at  the  druggist's.  As  caustic  soda  is  unpleasant 
to  handle,  it  is  best  to  have  the  druggist  dissolve  it  in  water. 
Now  pour  a  part  of  the  acid  into  a  saucer  or  glass,  with  a 
little  water,  and  add  the  solution  of  caustic  soda  until  the 
mixture  begins  to  turn  the  litmus  faintly  blue.  In  an  agate- 
ware dish,  free  from  worn  places,  evaporate  the  solution  to 
dryness.  A  whitish  substance  will  be  found,  which  by  test- 
.ing  will  be  recognized  as  common  salt. 

From  two  very  active  chemical  substances  has  been 
formed  a  neutral  substance  —  salt.  Not  all  salts,  however, 
are  neutral.  Sodium  carbonate  (washing  soda)  is  chem- 
ically a  salt,  but  it  is  made  up  of  a  very  strong  alkali  forming 
element — sodium  —  and  a  very  weak  acid  —  carbonic  acid  — 
and  the  alkali  properties  predominate.  Cream  of  tartar  is 
an  example  of  an  acid  salt.  It  is  acid  potassium  tartrate, 
which  is  a  double  salt,  that  is,  tartaric* acid  is  added  to  neutral 
potassium  tartrate,  the  result  being  a  substance  which  has 
acid  properties.  Common  alum  is  slightly  acid  to  litmus  paper. 


172 


PROGRAM  159 

Soap 

Soap  chemically  considered  is  a  salt,  made  up  of  a  fat 
acid  and  the  metallic  substance  sodium.  The  fatty  acid 
can  be  separated  by  adding  any  acid  like  vinegar  to  a  solu- 
tion of  soap.  If  the  solution  is  warm,  it  rises  as  a  scum 
to  the  top.  It  can  be  dissolved  in  ammonia,  forming  an 
ammonia  soap.  The  sodium  part  of  the  soap  unites  with 
the  acid  and  forms  a  salt.  If  hydrochloric  acid  is  added  to 
a  soap  solution  (a  sufficient  quantity  to  make  the  solution 
very  slightly  acid),  the  fatty  acid  removed,  and  the  residue 
evaporated  to  dryness,  common  salt  will  be  found. 

If  lime  water  be  added  to  a  solution  of  soap,  white  clots 
of  "lime  soap"  will  be  formed  which  are  insoluble  in  water, 
but  on  collecting  and  drying  will  be  found  to  dissolve  in 
gasoline,  naphtha,  cr  kerosene.  This  is  why  naphtha  or 
gasoline  is  useful  in  cleaning  bath  tubs,  bowls,  etc.  Quite 
a  good  varnish  can  be  made  of  aluminum  soap,  made  from 
alum  and  white  soap,  dried  and  dissolved  in  gasoline. 

Washing  Powders 

It  is  not  difficult  to  get  some  idea  of  the  composition  of 
the  various  washing  powders  on  the  market.  When  acid 
is  added  to  a  solution,  if  there  is  effervescence,  washing  soda 
is  probably  present.  A  skum  would  indicate  that  soap 
formed  a  part  of  the  mixture. 

Hard  Water 

In  the  experiment  with  cabon  dioxide  it  was  shown  how 
carbonate  of  lime  might  be  dissolved  by  an  excess  of  carbon 
dioxide  gas,  the  bicarbonate  of  lime  being  formed,  which  is 
soluble  in  water.  This  is  an  example  of  an  "unstable" 
chemical  compound.  Simply  boiling  drives  off  the  excess 
of  carbon  dioxide  gas,  leaving  the  ordinary  carbonate  of  lime 
which  is  insoluble  and  is  deposited  on  the  sides  of  the  tea 
kettle  or  other  vessel.  This  may  be  shown  by  blowing  into 
lime  water  until  the  cloudiness  which  at  first  appears  begins 


173 


160  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

to  dissolve.  As  it  is  difficult  to  dissolve  it  completely,  the 
solution  may  be  filtered.  On  boiling  the  clear  solution,  the 
milkiness  will  appear  again. 

Hardness  that  is  brought  about  by  the  sulphate  of  lime  — 
"permanent  hardness  "  — is  difficult  to  remedy  by  any  house- 
hold means.  Washing  soda  helps  a  little,  but  not  very 
much.  The  so-called  alkali  waters  of  the  west,  in  addition 
to  sulphate  of  lime  contain  sulphate  of  soda  and  other  salts, 
so  that  they  are  beyond  remedy. 

Reference:     Chemistry  of  Daily  Life  —  The   Manufacture  of 
Soda.     Page  194. 


MEETING  IV 

(Study  pages  66-88) 
Laundry  Work 

Bluing  May  Yellow  Clothes:  On  page  70  is  the  statement 
that  the  repeated  use  of  ordinary  bluing  may  stain  the  clothes 
yellow.  To  prove  this,  dip  a  piece  of  white  muslin  into  a 
strong  bluing  solution  —  about  a  teaspoonful  of  liquid  blu- 
ing to  a  cup  of  water  —  dry  the  cloth  with  a  hot  iron  and  boil 
it  in  a  little  strong  soap  solution.  The  color  will  be  seen  to 
fade.  Rinse  and  dry  with  the  iron.  On  comparing  the 
cloth  with  part  of  the  original  piece,  a  slight  yellow  stain 
will  be  seen.  This  is  oxide  of  iron  (iron  rust)  and  can  be 
proved  to  be  such  by  adding  a  drop  of  pure  dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  then  a  drop  of  yellow  prussiate  of  potash 
(potassium  f erro-cyanide) ,  the  intense  blue  color  produced 
being  a  test  for  iron.  The  conditions  in  this  experiment 
are,  of  course,  much  more  severe  than  obtained  in  ordinary 
washing,  as  most  of  the  bluing  is  washed  out  before  the 
clothes  are  boiled  again,  but  the  experiment  proves  the  pos- 
sibility. As  indigo  costs  about  a  dollar  a  pound  and  Prus- 
sian blue  only  a  few  cents,  practically  all  the  bluings  on  the 
market  are  Prussian  blue. 


174 


PROGRAM  161 

Iron  Rust  Stains 

Make  "rusty  water"  by  letting  a  few  nails  stand  in  a  can 
of  water  over  night  or  longer.  Boil  some  white  cotton  cloth 
in  a  little  of  the  water.  Try  the  same  with  wool.  Strain 
some  of  the  water  through  white  muslin  and  boil  the  muslin 
in  soapy  water. 

Stains 

One  of  the  classes  gave  a  demonstration  before  a  large 
audience  on  the  removal  of  stains  as  outlined  in  this  lesson. 
As  the  only  way  to  learn  how  to  remove  stains  is  to  remove 
stains,  it  would  be  advisable  to  make  a  few,  if  none  are  at 
hand,  and  then  try  the  experiments  on  them. 

References:  Chemistry  of  Daily  Life — Inks.     Page  178. 

Laundry  Work,  by  Juniata  L.  Sheppard.     (SQC., 

postage  6c.) 

(Send  answers  to  Test  Questions  on  Part  II,  and  report 
on  supplemental  work.) 

MEETING  V 

(Study  pages  89-111) 
Baking  Powder 

Perform  experiments  suggested  on  pages  90  and  91. 

Reference:     Baking  Powders.     Bulletin  No.  119,  Maine  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station.     (Loaned  for  2C.) 
Lighting 

(1)  See  Experiment  page  93. 

(2)  Insert  the  small  end  of  a  clay  pipe  stem  in  the  inner 
part  of  a  candle  flame  and  touch  a  lighted  match  to  the 
other  and  so  prove  that  the  candle  is  a  "gas  factory. " 

3)     With    a    piece    of    wire  gauze  make   the   experiments 

illustrated  on  page  95. 
(4)     Visit  the  local  gas  plant  if  there  is  one  —  or  the  electric 

light  station  —  obtaining  permission  first  from  the  office. 


175 


162          CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 

Electric  Batteries 

(1)  Detach  one  of  the  batteries   that  furnish  the  current 
for  the  electric  bell,  attach  a  wire  to  each  pole  and  place 
the  other  ends  on  the  tongue  and  note  that  the  electric 
current  gives  a  slight  "taste"  —  i.  e.,  stimulates  some  of 
the  nerves  of  taste. 

(2)  Get  some  one  to  explain  the  action  in  an  electric  bell 
or  send  2C.  stamp  to  the  School  for  circular  giving  descrip- 
tive diagram,  diagrams  for  bell  wiring,  etc. 

Plants 

Examine  with  a  microscope  the  "breathing  pores"  on  the 
under  surface  of  leaves. 


MEETING  VI 

(Study  pages  111-122) 

Chemical  Formulas 

Reference:     "Chemistry  of  Cooking  and  Cleaning,  "  by  Rich- 
ards and  Elliott.     Pages  9-30.     ($ i. oo,  postage 

IOC.) 

' '  Elementary  Chemistry.  "     Text  book  of  Ameri- 
can School  of  Correspondence.     (Postage  4C.) 

Housekeepers'  Laboratory 

Make  some  of  the  tests  described. 

Reference:  "Some  Forms  of  Food  Adulteration  and  Simple 
Methods  for  their  Detection.  "  Bulletin  No. 
100,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture.  Send  roc.  (coin)  to  the  Supt 
of  Documents,  Washington,  D.  C. 

(Send  answers  to  Test  Questions  on  Part  III  and  report  on 
supplemental  work.) 


176 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY 


A  NATURAL   starting   point  in    the  art  of  cookery 
is  the  fire,  since  cookery  without  heat  is  an  im- 
possibility.   Human  beings  everywhere  use  fire  to  pre- 
pare their  foods  and  by  such  applications  of  heat  man 
first  showed  his  superiority  to  the  beasts. 

FIRE 

Among  the  ancients  fire  was  regarded  as  a  gift  from 
the  gods,  to  be  protected  in  every  way,  and  all  civiliza- 
tion, forms  of  religion,  civil  ordinances,  and  family  life 
have  been  traced  to  the  care  primitive  man  bestowed 
upon  his  fire.  Among  the  early  tribes,  the  chieftain 
was  often  the  only  one  to  have  a  fire  in  his  home. 
The  hearthstone  thus  became  the  center  of  the  home 
life,  the  abode  of  the  household  gods,  and  even  at  the 
present  time  it  is  impossible  for  some  persons  to  sep- 
arate the  spirit  of  the  home  from  the  kitchen  fire. 

In  different  sections  of  the  country  may  still  be 
seen  all  the  types  of  fire  and  stove  that  have  been  Ancient 

Stoves 

developed  through  centuries,  and  every  housekeeper 
should  be  familiar  with  the  principles  underlying  the 
care  of  each.  Among  these  are-  the  camp  fire  where 
food  is  broiled  over  coals  or  buried  in  hot  ashes,  the 
charcoal  brazier  of  the  fruit  vender,  essentially  the 
same  as  the  portable  stoves  found  in  Pompeii,  the  open 
fireplace,  the  brick  oven,  the  Franklin  stove,  (an  in- 


177 


2  PRINCIPLES    OF    COOKERY. 

vention  of  Benjamin  Franklin),  cookstoves  adapted  to 
wood,  to  hard  and  soft  coal,  to  kerosene,  to  gas,  and 
the  electrical  appliances  which  as  yet  are  little  more 
than  toys  for  the  rich. 

A  century  and  more  ago  chimneys  and  fireplaces 
were  often  troublesome  by  smoking 
and  Count  Rumford  and  Benjamin 
Franklin  each  in  different  ways 
brought  their  inventive  faculties  to  the 
solution  of  this  serious  problem  of 
daily  life.  When  the  fireplace  was  the 
dependence  of  the  home  for  warmth 
and  cooking,  the  charred,  half-burned 
brands  of  wood  were  carefully  covered 
A  Roman  stove  with  ashes  at  night  to  start  the  fire  the 
or  Brazier.  nexf-  morning.  If  the  wind  had  blown 

off  the  ashes  and  the  coals  were  gone  out,  it  was  easier 
to  borrow  more  coals  from  a  neighbor  than  to  use  the 
flint  to  produce  a  spark.  All  this  was  changed  when 
matches  were  invented. 

First  ^  was  kut  a  steP  for  primitive  man  from  baking  in 
Ovens  iloj-  ashes  or  in  a  covered  kettle  set  on  the  coals  to  a 
simple  form  of  oven.  Often  one  oven  served  a  com- 
munity. Brick  ovens  were  built  at  one  side  of  the 
chimney.  Sometimes  the  heat  was  turned  through  a 
flue  to  heat  these  ovens,  sometimes  a  fire  was  built 
directly  in  the  oven,  and  when  it  was  burned  down  the 
oven  was  swept  out  and  the  food  put  in  to  be  cooked 


178 


FIRE.  3 

by  the  heated  bricks.  The  later  brick  ovens,  still  used 
in  some  old  houses,  often  had  space  underneath  for 
a  separate  fire. 


An  Oven,  Showing  Direction  of  the  Hot  Gases. 

For  the  open  fire,  wood  is  the  most  satisfactory  fuel 
but  it  is  not  desirable  for  continuous  use  in  cooking  or 
heating.  Wood  is  sold  by  measure,  which  is  an  in- 
accurate method  at  best.  The  drier  the  wood  the  better 
it  burns,  and  a  hard  wood  which  produces  coals  is 
most  useful. 

When  wood  is  heated  and  the  volatile  portions  ex- 
pelled, charcoal  is  produced.  This  is  usually  sold  by 
measure.  Its  weight  is  about  one-fifth  that  of  the  wood 
from  which  it  is  made.  It  is  a  primitive  form  of  fuel 
and  generally  used  in  warm  countries.  A  succession 
of  small  fires  which  can  be  quickly  lighted  and  as 


179 


4  PRINCIPLES    OF    COOKERY. 

quickly  extinguished  are  more  suitable  to  such  condi- 
tions than  the  one  large  stove  or  range. 

.  The  small  stoves  used  today  by  the  Latin  races  and 
their  colonies  do  not  differ  materially  from  those  of 
the  early  Romans. 

charcoal          The  charcoal  broiler  is  used  by  many  hotels  because 
of  the  flavor  it  appears  to  develop  in  meats. 

Peat  is  an  important  fuel  in  some  sections  of  the 
world.  It  must  be  thoroughly  drained  or  dried,  and 
at  best  contains  a  large  percentage  of  ash. 

Both  anthracite  and  bituminous  coal  have  been  in 
common  use  for  less  than  a  hundred  years. 
Hard  coai  A  dense  solid,  like  hard  coal,  kindles  slowly  but 
requires  far  less  care  to  maintain  a  fire  than  wood. 
Coal  is  a  better  fuel  for  winter  than  summer!  If  the 
lumps  of  coal  are  too  large  they  will  not  kindle  readily ; 
if  too  small,  they  choke  the  flame.  The  large  nut  and 
egg  grades  are  best  suited  to  cooking  purposes.  The 
draft  and  size  of  the  fire  box  determine  the  size  and 
grade  to  be  used  for  good  results.  The  free  burning 
"Franklin"  coal  should  be  used  with  poor  draft,  while 
with  a  good  draft  and  large  fire  box  all  grades  and  the 
larger  sizes  may  be  used.  A  dark  brilliant  coal  will 
have  fewest  clinkers.  The  intense  heat  resulting  from 
open  drafts  fuses  in  large  masses  the  foreign  matter 
which  is  mixed  with  the  carbon.  By  burning  oyster 
shells  in  such  cases,  new  compounds  are  formed  which 
prevent  the  clinkers,  but  the  clinkers  seldom  form  with 
a  moderate  supply  of  air. 


180 


FIRE.  5 

Soft  coal  needs  very  different  treatment  from  hard. 
Little  draft  underneath  is  required,  but  some  draft  is 
necessary  over  the  top  to  burn  the  gases  given  off,  and 
the  funnel  draft  must  be  open  to  allow  the  smoke  to 
escape.  If  the  coal  has  "coked"  over  on  top  it  must 
be  broken  up  when  good  fire  is  required.  If  the  fire 
is  to  be  kept,  it  is  allowed  to  coke  over. 

Briquettes  are  made  from  coal  dust  and  other  sub- 
stances and  are  used  extensively  in  places  where  coal 
is  high  priced. 

The  wood  and  coal  stoves  and  ranges  are  today  the 
most  common  means  of  cooking  foods.  Housekeepers 
often  become  familiar  with  one  stove  and  one  kind  of 
fuel  and  are  unsuccessful  with  another  because  they 
are  unwilling  to  study  the  laws  of  nature,  or  lack  the 
patience  to  experiment  with  a  new  adaptation  of  them. 

Much  besides  personal  preference  must  be  con- 
sidered in  the  proper  valuation  of  fuels ;  not  only  the 
percentage  of  carbon,  moisture,  and  volatile  matter  in 
each,  but  the  necessary  waste,  the  by-products,  and 
the  time  required  for  caring  for  each  and  keeping  the 
surroundings  clean. 

The  best  stoves  and  ranges  are  those  plain  in  finish 
and  simple  in  construction,  with  parts  well  fitted  to- 
gether so  that  they  can  be  taken  apart  if  necessary 
and  easily  cleaned. 

A  portable  range  is  one  that  may  be  moved  if  neces- 
sary, while  the  "set"  range  is  built  into  the  chimney. 

The  fire  box  is  lined  on  the  sides  with  a  kind  of  brick 


181 


6  PRINCIPLES    OF    COOKER*. 

above  which  the  fire  should  never  come.  The  revolv- 
ing grate  is  the  most  common  in  recent  styles  of  stoves. 
There  is  a  grate  underneath,  and  below  is  a  place  for 
ashes  or  a  pan  which  may  be  taken  out  to  empty.  The 
oven  is  surrounded  by  spaces  through  which  hot  gases 
circulate. 

The  housekeeper  should  investigate  her  stove  thor- 
oughly when  the  fire  is  out,  take  off  all  covers,  open 
doors,  remove  the  "clean  out"  plate  for  the  space  under 
the  oven ;  then  see  Low  the  dampers  work  and  explore 
all  passages  with  a  lighted  match  or  candle  if  need  be. 

The  draft  given  by  the  chimney  depends  upon  the 
difference  in  temperature  between  the  air  of  the  room 
and  the  gases  of  combustion.  The  hot  gases  are  more 
expanded  and  therefore  lighter  and  tend  to  rise.  The 
hotter  the  fire  the  greater  the  draft  will  be. 

The  supply  of  air  is  as  essential  as  fuel  for  a  good 
fire ;  combustion  depends  upon  both.  Smoke  and  an 
accumulation  of  soot  are  indications  of  incomplete 
combustion. 

Several  drafts  and  dampers  are  common  to  all  wood 
and  coal  stoves  and  ranges.  They  should  be  open  to 
start  the  fire,  but  closed  to  keep  it.  The  slide  under  the 
fire  box  supplies  the  fresh  air  necessary  for  perfect 
combustion.  A  check  in  the  pipe  or  at  the  back  of 
the  stove  under  the  pipe,  or  in  both  places,  is  usually 
known  as  the  chimney  damper.  A  slide  in  the  stove 
pipe  or  connected  with  the  chimney  damper  admits 
cold  air  into  the  stove  pipe  when  opened  and  thus  les- 
sens the  draft. 


182 


FIRE.  7 

The  oven  damper  turns  the  heated  air  away  from 
the  pipe  so  that  it  goes  over  the  top,  down  the  side, 
under  the  bottom,  and  up  the  back  flue  in  most  stoves 
and  heats  the  oven  before  it  makes  its  escape.  These 
differ  slightly  in  different  ranges  but  the  purpose  of 
each  is  the  same.  Experiment  with  your  own  stove 
until  you  can  control  it. 

Many  ranges  have  a  slide  or  door  above  the  fire 
box  which  may  be  used  for  broiling.  Hoods  are  some- 
times placed  over  large  ranges  to  gather  odors  and 
excessive  heat  and  convey  them  to  the  chimney. 

Whether  the  fuel  be  coal  or  wood,  the  starting  of  a 
fire  and  its  care  afterwards  are  much  the  same  pro- 
cess. First  remove  ashes,  brushing  off  the  top  of  the 
oven  under  the  covers.  When  the  fire  box  is  clear, 
put  in  crumpled  paper,  bits  of  wood,  and  then  larger 
wood  and  a  sprinkle  of  fine  coal. .  See  that  all  drafts 
are  open.  Replace  the  covers  and  then  blacken  the 
stove,  if  necessary,  but  polish  after  the  fire  is  started. 
Light  the  paper  and  as  the  wood  settles  down,  add  coal, 
little  by  little,  till  it  is  even  with  the  lining  of  the  fire 
box.  When  the  blue  flame  of  coal  disappears,  close 
the  oven  damper,  and  a  little  later  shut  the  slide  under 
the  fire  box  and  the  chimney  damper.  Open  the 
damper  when  more  coal  is  added.  When  coal  is  red 
it  is  nearly  burned  out. 

To  keep  a  fire  several  hours  shake  out  the  ashes, 
fill  with  coal,  close  the  dampers,  and  partially  open 
the  slide  above  the  fire. 


183 


8 


PRINCIPLES    OF    COOKERY, 


Gas 

Burners 


For  continual  use  it  is  better  to  add  a  little  fuel  at 
a  time,  but  not  in  the  midst  of  baking  anythingo    With 
wood  and   soft   coal   the  chimney   damper  cannot  be 
closed  as  much  as  with  hard  coal,  because  there  is  more 
soot  and  smoke  which  must  be  allowed  to  escape. 
Gas  is  an  invisible  fuel  obtained  from  several  sources. 
Pure  coal   gas   is   more  satisfac- 
tory than  natural  gas,  or  than  the 
so-called  "water  gas."     The  es- 
cape of  the  latter  is  less  easily  de- 
tected and  it  is  much  more  poi- 
sonous, hence  there  is  more  dan- 
ger in  using  it. 

For  institutions  at  a  distance 
from  large  towns  a  private  sup- 
ply of  gas  which  is  fairly  satis- 
factory is  made  from  gasoline, 
and  acetylene  gas  is  now 
often  made  even  for  the  single 
house. 

For  fuel  purposes,  the  burners  are  so  constructed  as 
to  admit  sufficient  air  with  the  gas  for  complete  com- 
bustion. A  bluish  flame  is  produced,  which  is  much 
hotter  than  the  yellow  blaze  used  for  light. 

It  is  possible  to  admit  too  much  air,  which  causes  a 

loss  of  heat.     If  the  air  supply  is  adjustable,  close  the 

opening  for  the  air  until  a  yellow  flame  is  produced, 

and  then  open  it  until  the  flame  just  comes  blue  again. 

If  a  burner  in  a  gas  stove  "burns  back"  and  shows  a 


Bunsen  Burner. 


184 


FIRE.  9 

yellowish  flame,  leaving  a  deposit  of  soot  on  the  bottom 
of  kettles,  turn  it  out  and  light  it  again,  being  careful 
that  the  gas  does  not  ignite  back  in  the  pipe  before 
it  mixes  with  the  air. 

Gas  stoves  should  be  connected  with  the  main  sup- 
ply by  a  pipe  large  enough  to  insure  sufficient  supply  of 


Gas    Stove    with    Oven.    Broiler,    and    Hot    Wa- 
ter  Heater    Attachment. 

fuel  under  all  conditions.  The  amount  used  can  then 
be  regulated  by  the  cook  for  each  burner.  Care  must 
be  taken  to  keep  the  burners  and  all  parts  of  the  stove 
perfectly  clean. 

The  gas  stove  is  especially  adapted  to  the  conditions 
of  the  present  age ;  it  is  far  less  care  than  either  wood 
or  coal  ranges,  and  at  ordinary  rates  for  gas,  kss  ex- 
pensive when  properly  operated.  Even  at  high  prices 


Gas 
Stoves 


185 


10 


PRINCIPLES    OF   COOKER*. 


Gas 

Meter 


for  gas  it  is  a  cheap  fuel  if  .human  energy  and  time 
are  considered.  The  application  of  a  match  makes  the 
full  power  of  the  stove  available  at  once  and  as  soon  as 
work  is  done,  the  flame  may  be  shut  off.  Any  desired 
degree  of  heat  may  be  obtained  at  short  notice  with 
no  waste  of  fuel  and  no  debris  to  be  cared  for.  The 
stoves  occupy  small  space  and  each  part  may  be  used 
independently. 


(a)  (b) 

Dial  of  a  Gas  Meter,    (a)  At  the  Beginning  of  a  Month, 
(b)  After  Registering  the  Amount  of  Gas  Used  for  the  Month. 

The  housekeeper  should  learn  to  read  a  gas  meter. 
Each  space  on  the  right  hand  circle  passed  by  the  hand 
indicates  the  consumption  of  100  cubic  feet  of  gas,  on 
the  middle  circle  1,000  feet,  and  on  the  one  on  the  left 
hand  10,000  feet.  Read  from  left  to  right,  taking  the 
figure  just  passed  by  each  hand  and  add  two  ciphers 
for  the  hundreds.  A  previous  reading  deducted  from 
the  present  one  shows  the  amount  of  gas  consumed  in 
a  given  time. 

Example.  In  the  illustration,  the  hand  on  dial  A  has 
just  passed  the  figure  7,  indicating  700  cubic  feet;  on 
dial  B  the  hand  has  passed  figure  8  (note  that  this 


186 


FIRE. 


ii 


hand  moves  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  first),  and 
on  dial  C  the  hand  has  last  passed  the  figure  4.    The 
reading  is  then,  700+8,000+40,00)— 48,700  cubic  feet. 
If  in  a  month  the  hands  are 
in  the  position  indicated  in  the 
second  figure,  the  reading  is 
64,900  cubic   feet.     The   dif- 
ference between  the  two  read- 
ings   is    64,900 — 48,700=16,- 
200  cubic  feet.    Sixteen  thou- 
sand two  hundred  cubic  feet 
is  the  amount  consumed  for 
the  month. 

The  small  dial  at  the  top  of 
the  illustration  indicates  cubic 
feet  and  is  used  only  for  test- 
ing the  system  for  leakage. 

Kerosene  and  gasoline  are 
useful  fuels  for  summer  and 
emergency  use.  These  are 
sold  by  the  gallon  and  only 
the  best  qualities  should  be 

us^d.  The  blue  flame  kerosene  probably  are  the  best 
of  this  class  of  stoves.  The  small  lamp  stoves  also 
have  merit.  They  are  similar  in  construction  to  read- 
ding  lamps  and  should  receive  equal  care.  Two  small 
stoves  often  are  more  useful  than  one  large  one,  be- 
cause more  readily  moved  where  needed.  It  is  essen- 
tial that  such  stoves  should  stand  out  of  a  draft. 


Steam    Cooker,    Circular 
Form. 


Kerosene 

and 

Gasoline 


187 


12 


PRINCIPLES    OF    COOKERY. 


Steam 
Cooker 


Chafing 
Dish 


A  steam  cooker  is  an  invaluable  adjunct  to  the  small 
stoves  whether  gas  or  kerosene  is  burned.  Several 
articles  may  thus  be  cooked  over  one  burner  and  both 
time  and  fuel  are  saved. 

The   Aladdin  oven  is   an  arrangement  for  saving 

I  heat.     It  may  be  used  with  an 

ordinary  large  lamp  or  with  gas. 
The  iron  oven  is  placed  inside  a 
jacket  of  non-conducting  sub- 
stance, hence  little  heat  is  lost. 
It  is  especially  useful  for  slow 
cooking. 

The  Norwegian  cooking  box 
is  another  plan  for  saving  heat. 
A  kettle  of  food  is  raised  to  the 
boiling  point  and  then  packed  in 
a  box  lined  with  non-conducting 
materials. 

The  modern  chafing  dish  is 
but  slightly  different  in  effect  from  the  primitive  char- 
coal stove  or  brazier.  The  use  of  alcohol  for  fuel 
makes  it  simple  and  clean.  Wood  alcohol — a  by- 
product from  distillation  of  wood — is  often  used  for 
fuel,  but  its  disagreeable  odor  makes  it  less  desirable. 
Anything  that  may  be  cooked  over  any  other  stove 
in  a  frypan,  saucepan,  or  double  boiler  may  be  pre- 
pared in  the  chafing  dish. 


Aladdin    Oven    Heated 
by  Lamp. 


188 


FIRE.  13 

Heat  brings  out  the  flavors  in  food  and  develops 
new  ones  and  makes  soluble,  substances  which  the 
human  stomach  could  not  otherwise  digest.  In  most 
cases  moderate  heat  long  continued  produces  better 
results  than  intense  heat  applied  for  a  short  period. 


A  MODIFIED  NORWEGIAN   COOKING  BOX. 

Graniteware  Palls  with  tight  covers  are  packed  with  asbestos  and  covered  with  a  pad,  the 
lid  of  the  box  is  then  closed  and  the  whole  wrapped  in  an  old  blanket. 

The  degree  of  heat  best  adapted  to  make  food  digesti- 
ible  is  not  always  that  which  produces  the  most  ac- 
ceptable flavor,  hence  cooking  must  be  more  or  less  of 
a  compromise.  As  yet  we  know  little  about  the  de- 
gree of  heat  best  suited  to  the  perfect  cooking  of  each 
food  and  the  temperature  at  which  it  should  be  served. 
Nothing  will  cook  until  it  is  warmed,  and  warming 
and  drying  are  usually  the  first  steps  in  the  cooking 
process. 


189 


Boiling 


Roasting 


14  PRINCIPLES    OF    COOKERY. 

The  transmission  of  heat  from  a  fire  to  our  foods 
may  be  by  conduction,  as  when  heat  travels  along  a  bar 
of  metal,  by  convection,  when  heat  is  transferred  by 
the  motion  of  heated  liquid  or  gas,  and  by  radiation 
through  the  air.  The  effect  of  heat  on  the  food  is  fur- 
ther modified  by  the  way  the  metal  or  other  substance 
containing  the  food  is  affected  by  heat. 

The  use  of  asbestos  in  the  form  of  mats  and  linings 
for  ovens  and  jackets  for  kettles  to  modify  the  heat 
transferred  to  food  is  likely  to  increase  in  the  future. 

Broiling  probably  was  the  first  attempt  at  cooking 
since  it  required  little  beside  the  fire  and  the  heat. 
Roasting  is  a  similar  process  applied  to  larger  sections 
of  meat  and  therefore  requiring  a  longer  time.  The 
relationship  of  roasting  and  broiling  is  most  apparent 
with  a  gas  range  for  there  is  no  line  of  separation  be- 
tween the  cooking  of  thick  steaks  and  thin  roasts. 
Much  so-called  roasting  is  really  baking. 

In  broiling  and  roasting,  tender  portions  of  fish,  flesh 
or  fowls  are  exposed  to  intense  heat  at  first  to  sear  the 
outside  and  close  the  open  tubes  or  pores  which  con- 
tain the  juices.  The  fire  should  be  free  from  smoke 
and  may  be  charcoal  or  half-burned  wood  or  coal  or 
gas.  After  the  surface  is  browned  the  section  of  meat 
should  be  drawn  away  from  the  intense  heat  and  kept 
at  a  more  moderate  temperature  until  cooked  thor- 
oughly. More  depends  upon  the  shape  of  the  article 
to  be  broiled  or  roasted  than  upon  the  weight. 

When  a  thick  mass  is  to  be  cooked  in  this  fashion  it 


190 


FIRE.  15 

becomes  necessary  to  modify  the  heat  on  the  outside  and  Basting 
to  aid  in  driving  it  in  by  the  process  known  as  basting ; 
that  is,  dipping  up  the  hot  fat  which  has  dripped  into 
a  pan  beneath  the  meat  and  hence  is  known  as  drip- 
ping, and  pouring  it  over  the  outside  of  the  mass.  The 
glossy  brown  secured  by  basting  may  have  suggested 
to  some  early  cook  the  advantage  of  deep  frying. 


Chafing-Dish — the  Modern  Brazier. 

The  difference  between  broiling  over  coals  and  in  a 
hot  pan  is  but  slight  and  dry  frying  or  sautering  is  a 
similar  process.  Toasting  is  a  similar  application  of 
heat  to  foods  already  cooked  once. 

The  earliest  forms  of  baking  were  in  the  hot  dishes 
and  then  in  covered  kettles  set  in  coals  or  hung  over 
the  fire.  Our  ovens  are  an  outgrowth  from  those 
primitive  methods,  and  now  much  so-called  roasting 
is  really  baking. 

A  point  to  study  in  this  connection  is  the  fact  that 
food  is  fuel  for  the  human  body.  The  amount  and 


191 


16  PRINCIPLES    OF    COOKERY. 

quality  of  fuel  is  varied  according  to  the  work  to  be 
done,  so  should  the  food  be  chosen  according  to 
the  work  of  the  individual  and  the  climate  or  season 
of  the  year. 

WATER 

Water  is  not  always  considered  to  be  strictly  a  food 
in  itself,  but  by  its  aid  many  foods  and  flavors  are  put 
in  forms  more  acceptable  to  the  palate  and  more  readily 
absorbed  by  the  body  than  they  could  be  in  any  other 
way. 

importance  Immense  quantities  of  water  are  necessary  for 
in°cooking  the  preparation  of  food  and  the  cleansing  of  dishes 
in  addition  to  what  is  needed  for  laundry  and  bathing 
purposes.  Cities  make  provision  from  some  source 
safe  from  contamination  for  the  water  needed  by  their 
inhabitants.  In  small  communities  the  individual  fam- 
ily must  each  be  responsible  for  its  water  supply.  This 
is  not  the  place  to  discuss  the  medical  aspect  of  the 
water  question,  but  all  agree  that  water  should  be 
above  the  suspicion  of  danger  of  transmitting  disease. 
Moreover,  for  household  purposes  water  should  be 
clean  and  soft,  since  hard  water  containing  mineral 
salts  hinders  processes  of  cooking  and  cleaning. 

A  limited  water  supply  or  inconvenient  arrangements 
for  its  use  and  disposal  afterward,  tend  to  reduce  the 
consumption  to  such  an  extent  as  to  interfere  with  the 
proper  cooking  and  service  of  food,  if  not  below  the 
actual  standards  for  health. 


192 


•    WATER.  17 

Nearly  three-fourths  of  the  human  body  is  water  and 
a  similar  proportion  will  hold  in  most  foods  served  at 
our  tables.  The  total  amount  of  water  taken  by  a 
human  being  daily  averages  two  or  three  quarts,  or 
from  four  to  six  pounds.  The  portion  of  this  which 
is  taken  as  a  beverage  depends  upon  the  solidity  of  the 
food. 

The  benefit  gained  from  mineral  waters  often  is  quite      Minera 
as  much  due  to  an  increased  consumption  of  water  as      Water 
to  the  mineral  constituents  they  contain.    The  tendency 
of  civilized  man  in  feeding  himself  is  toward  too  con- 
centrated foods,  too  little  water  as  a  beverage  and  too 
little  watery  food.     Water  not  only  brings  solids  into 
the  stomach  in  an  acceptable  form,  but  it  is  essential 
in  building  new  tissues  and  removing  wastes.  '  The  in- 
side of  the  body,  as  well  as  the  outside,  sometimes  re- 
quires washing. 

The  temperature  at  which  water  is  taken  into  the 
stomach  is  an  important  point.  A  glass  of  cool  water 
sipped  slowly  may  have  as  stimulating  an  effect  as  one 
of  wine.  Often  more  ice  than  water  is  found  in  the 
glasses  on  American  tables,  and  the  ice  water  is  taken 
hurriedly  and  interferes  with  digestion. 

Hot  water  taken  slowly  will  often  revive  tired  peo- 
ple as  effectually  as  tea  or  coffee.  The  merit  of  soup 
as  a  first  course  at  dinner  probably  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  it  contains  ninety  to  ninety-five  per  cent  hot  water 
and  that  the  solids  are  largely  in  solution  and  absorb- 
able. 


193 


i8 


PRINCIPLES    OF    COOKERY. 


Flavor 
of  Water 


Dishwashing 


If  clear  hot  water  is  an  unpalatable  beverage,  salt 
or  lemon  juice  may  be  added  to  give  a  distinct  flavor. 

There  is  a  marked  difference  in  flavor  between  water 
freshly  boiled  and  that  which  has  been  kept  hot  for  a 
long  time.  The  latter  has  lost  the  gases  which  give 
life  to  fresh  water.  For  any  purpose  in  cooking  stale 
water  will  injure  the  flavor  of  foods  whether  it  be 
taken  from  a  hot  water  faucet  or  from  a  teakettle  where 
it  has  stood  for  hours. 

Other  ill  flavors  come  into  our  foods  because  of  im- 
perfect utensils,  badly  washed.  A  rough  surface  or 
seam  will  retain  something  from  previous  cooking  to 
add  to  the  next  substance  cooked  therein,  or  greasy 
dishwater  or  soap  may  be  left  in  sufficient  quantity  to 
give  an  •  appreciable  change  of  flavor. 

Another  important  use  of  water  essential  in  good 
cooking  is  for  the  cleaning  of  utensils. 

Dishwashing  is  not  a  popular  occupation  probably 
because  repairing  or  setting  to  rights  is  never  quite  as 
interesting  as  the  construction  of  something  definite. 
Insufficient  appliances  and  inconvenient  conditions  for 
the  work  are  other  causes  for  its  unpopularity. 

With  a  convenient  sink  of  the  right  height,  ample 
table  room  for  soiled  and  clean  dishes,  abundance  of 
towels  and  hot  water,  dishwashing  loses  its  terrors. 

A  knowledge  of  the  composition  of  each  food  and  the 
way  it  is  affected  by  different  degrees  of  heat  is  as  de- 
sirable in  dishwashing  as  in  cooking.  For  example, 
where  gelatine  has  dried  on  a  strainer  it  should  be 


194 


WATER.  19 

softened  in  cold  water,  but  that  treatment  would  not  be 
helpful  if  the  strainer  had  been  used  for  fry  fat,  while 
an  egg  beater  plunged  in  boiling  water  would  be  all  the 
harder  to  wash  because  the  egg  would  be  cooked. 
Time  is  saved  by  careful  sorting  and  scraping  of  dishes 
before  washing.  Detergents  are  helpful  but  less  im- 
portant than  abundance  of  water. 

Strong  soda  water  boiled  in  a  utensil  will  remove      soaking 
food  that  has  burned  on.     Soaking  is  as  helpful   in      Dishes 
dishwashing  as  in  the  laundry  and  dishes  that  cannot 
be  washed  as  soon  as  used  should  be  covered  with 
water.     After  washing,  any  dishes  are  improved  by 
rinsing  in  scalding  water. 

The  usual  plan  is  to  wash  dishes  in  this  order,  glass, 
silver,  crockery,  cooking  pans,  or  kettles.  Often  it  is 
more  desirable  to  get  the  large  pieces  out  of  the  way 
first. 

It  is  half  a  century  since  the  first  dishwashing  ma- 
chine was  invented  and  though  they  are  in  general  use 
for  hotels,  hand  work  seems  better  adapted  to  most 
households. 

To  illustrate  the  effect  of  the  range  of  temperature 
from  the  block  of  ice  at  32°  F  to  the  steaming  kettle  at 
212°  F  let  us  follow  the  process  of  making  a  simple 
gelatine  jelly.  The  gelatine  has  been  extracted  for  us 
in  factories  from  bones  of  animals  and  needs  no  cook- 
ing, but  must  be  dissolved  and  combined  with  liquid 
and  flavoring.  It  is  first  softened  in  cold  water,  the 
time  required  varying  according  to  the  size  of  the  parti- 


195 


20  PRINCIPLES   OF   COOKERY. 

cles  of  gelatine.  Then  it  must  be  dissolved  with  boil- 
ing liquid.  Use  only  as  much  boiling  liquid  as  is  neces- 
Geiatme  sary  to  dissolve  the  gelatine.  The  sugar,  if  that  is  to 
be  used,  added  next,  because  it  will  dissolve  more 
rapidly  in  a  warm  medium,  and  then  is  put  in  the  fruit 
juice  or  whatever  is  to  flavor  the  jelly. 

The  compound  is  to  be  strained  and  cooled.  The 
larger  the  mass  the  slower  the  cooling. 

Experiment.  To  illustrate  this  put  half  the  jelly  in 
one  mould  and  the  other  half  in  several  cups.  The  cup 
will  be  firm  before  the  large  mould  at  any  tempera- 
ture. 

To  illustrate  another  point  put  one  cup  in  a  pan  of 
snow  or  cracked  ice  mixed  with  coarse  salt.  When 
some  of  the  jelly  is  half  thickened  combine  with  it 
whipped  cream  or  white  of  egg. 

If  possible  take  temperature  of  each  with  a  ther- 
mometer. The  key  to  all  gelatine  desserts,  is  to  have 
proper  proportions  of  gelatine  and  liquid  and  to  have 
the  right  temperature  for  the  different  stages.  The 
proportions  are  given  by  each  manufacturer  on  the 
package. 

METHODS  OF  COOKING  IN  WATER. 

Water  is  as  essential  as  fire  in  all  processes  of  cook- 
ery.    No  food  can  be  cooked  without  water  and  un- 
less  it  naturally  contains   a  large   proportion  of  the 
fluid,  more  must  be  added  during  the  cooking  process. 
Boiling          Cooking  food  in  water  indicates  further  progress  in 


196 


WATER.  21 

this  art  than  either  broiling  or  roasting.  It  implies 
the  invention  of  a  kettle  to  contain  the  water,  though 
the  earliest  cooking  of  this  sort  may  have  been  done  by 
dropping  heated  stones  into  a  hollow  one  containing 
the  water  and  meat  or  into  a  water  tight  basket.  Homer 
and  other  ancient  writers  have  nothing  to  say  about 
boiled  meats,  though  they  mention  those  which  were 
broiled  or  roasted. 

Boiling,  stewing,  and  steaming  are  slight  variations 
of  the  same  process.  Under  ordinary  conditions,  with- 
out pressure,  no  food  thus  cooked  can  be  raised  to  a 
higher  temperature  than  212°  F  at  sea  level,  and  at 
high  altitudes  few  foods  can  be  cooked  in'  this  way, 
since  water  boils  at  a  lower  temperature. 

Experiment.  Much  may  be  learned  by  heating  a 
given  measure  of  water  and  watching  it  until  it  reaches 
the  boiling  point. 

Tiny  bubbles  hardly  larger  than  the  point  of  a  pin 
soon  form  and  rise  to  the  top,  but  this  is  not  boiling. 
The  same  thing  may  happen  in  a  glass  of  water  stand- 
ing for  an  hour  on  the  table.  How  will  you  explain 
this? 

When  the  water  is  actually  boiling  large  bubbles 
rise  rapidly  and  break  on  the  surface.  Keep  up  this 
process  until  nothing  appears  to  be  left  in  the  pan. 
Where  has  the  water  gone?  Has  anything  been  left 
behind  ?  There  will  usually  be  a  trace  of  coloring  mat- 
ter to  indicate  that  solids  do  not  evaporate. 

This  point  may  be  made  more  apparent  by  putting  a 


197 


22 


PRINCIPLES    OF    COOKERY. 


Evaporation 


Choice  of 
Utensils 


tablespoon ful  of  salt  in  the  water  that  is  to  be  evapo- 
rated. 

What  is  left  behind  in  a  teakettle  which  is  never 
cleaned  inside  though  the  water  is  allowed  to  boil  day 
after  day? 

Experiment.  Other  simple  experiments  may  be  made 
with  two  dishes  of  uniform  size  containing  the  same 
amount  of  water  exposed  to  the  same  heat,  one  covered, 
the  other  uncovered.  Which  reaches  the  boiling  point 
first  ?  From  which  does  the  water  first  evaporate  ? 

The  evaporation  of  water  is  an  important  factor  in 
cooking.  The  rate  of  evaporation  is  proportionate  to 
the  surface  exposed  to  the  air  and  not  to  the  amount 
of  water  in  the  kettle. 

Thus  the  same  quantity  of  syrup  or  sauce  made  in  a 
shallow  pam  will  naturally  become  thicker  than  when 
cooked  for  the  same  time  in  a  deep  pan  having  only 
one-fourth  the  surface. 

The  art  of  the  cook  is  displayed  by  the  proper  choice 
of  utensils,  or,  if  utensils  are  limited,  by  varying  the 
time  of  the  process  or  by  the  addition  of  more  water 
for  different  purposes.  Where  long  cooking  is  neces- 
sary choose  deep  utensils,  reserving  the  shallow  ones 
for  the  occasions  when  haste  is  essential. 

The  use  of  a  cover  serves  several  purposes;  it  pro- 
tects the  food  in  the  kettle  from  foreign  matter  from 
outside,  it  aids  in  retaining  the  heat,  and  prevents  the 
loss  of  water  to  some  extent,  as  much  of  the  steam 
condenses  and  runs  back. 


198 


COOKING  IN   WATER.  23 

Even  without  a  thermometer  it  is  evident  that  water 
cannot  be  made  as  hot  as  fat,  for  a  potato,  a  bit  of  meat, 
or  a  lump  of  dough  might  be  cooked  in  water  indefinite- 
ly without  assuming  the  brown  color  which  would 
come  to  any  one  of  these  articles  in  hot  fat. 

By  observation  also,  we  might  discover  that,  however 
rapidly  the  water  in  a  kettle  boils,  potatoes  or  other 
foods  do  not  cook  more  quickly.  In  the  same  way  we 
should  find  that  absolute  boiling  or  bubbling  of  the 
water  was  not  necessary  in  order  to  cook  some  foods. 

Through  such  observation  and  experience  certain 
common  laws  of  cooking  have  been  established  and 
these  have  been  verified  and  explained  by  the  experi- 
ments of  modern  scientists.  The  temperature  of  the 
water  should  be  adapted  to  the  type  of  food  material 
to  be  cooked  in  it.  Vegetables  containing  woody  fibre 
to  be  softened  require  the  boiling-point,  while  meats 
and  eggs,  of  different  composition,  will  cook  more  per- 
fectly at  a  lower  temperature.  To  extract  juices  and 
flavors  of  meats  and  vegetables  to  the  fullest  degree 
divide  the  substance  finely  to  expose  as  much  surface  as 
possible  to  the  action  of  the  water  and  let  that  be  cold. 
Soak  first,  then  heat  the  whole  slowly  and  hold  below 
the  boiling  point  till  the  end  is  gained. 

When  water  is  used  only  for  the  purpose  of  convey- 
ing heat  let  it  be  boiling  hot  when  the  food  is  put  into 
it.  Even  then  some  of  the  solids  in  the  food  will  be  dis- 
solved in  the  water  and  lost  unless  it  be  used.  In  some 
cases,  as  in  strong  flavored  vegetables,  this  may  be  a 


199 


24  PRINCIPLES    OF    COOKERY. 

desirable  loss.  Mediums  like  hot  fat,  a  thick  syrup,  or 
a'  gravy  in  which  water  is  thickened  with  flour,  by 
their  density  prevent  loss  of  shape  and  flavor  in  the 
articles  cooked  in  them.  Rapid  boiling  in  water  tends 
to  disintegrate  foods.  Meats  are  cooked  to  rags, 
potatoes  become  a  soggy  paste,  and  no  intensity  of  heat 
is  gained. 


A   Double-Boiler — an   Invention  of   Count 
Eumford. 

stewing  Stewing  implies  moist  heat,  a  sort  of  sweating 
process.  Boiling  requires  much  water,  at  its  highest 
temperature ;  stewing  is  done  with  little  water  at  a  heat 
sufficient  to  soften  the  substance,  but  considerably  be- 
low the  boiling  point.  Hence  boiling  is  more  applica- 
ble to  vegetables  and  stewing  to  animal  foods. 

Braising  Braising  and  fricasseeing  and  pot  roasting  are  com- 
binations of  broiling  or  frying  and  stewing.  Sections 
of  meat  are  first  browned  to  secure  a  good  flavor  and 
then  stewed  until  tender  in  broth  or  gravy. 


200 


COOKING  IN   WATER.  25 

Water  is  a  restless  substance  and  is  constantly  escap- 
ing from  the  surface  of  our  foods  while  they  are  being 
cooked.  Keep  the  water  in  the  right  place,  is  a  watch- 
word against  many  of  the  difficulties  that  arise  in 
cookery. 

When  a  sauce  or  soup  is  too  thick  water  may  be 
added.  On  the  other  hand,  when  such  foods  are  too 
watery  the  surplus  often  may  be  evaporated  by  cook- 
ing rapidly,  uncovered,  for  a  short  time. 

Besides  kettles  of  various  shapes,  the  double  boiler  The 
and  the  steam  cooker  are  important  utensils  dependent  ^li 
for  use  upon  water.  The  double  boiler  we  owe  to  the 
inventive  genius  of  Count  Rumford.  Here  is  one  ket- 
tle set  in  another  containing  water,  and  so  long  as 
there  is  water  between  a  food  and  the  fire  no  browning 
can  take  place  in  the  food.  This  utensil  is  especially 
associated  with  compounds  of  milk  and  with  the  cook- 
ing of  cereals.  Though  the  food  in  the  upper  part 
does  not  quite  reach  the  boiling  point,  this  disadvantage 
is  more  than  balanced  by  the  long  time  which  may  be 
allowed  for  cooking  with  no  danger  of  burning. 

The  steam  cooker  is  found  in  many  patterns,  all  on 
the  same  general  plan.  It  differs  from  the  double 
boiler  in  having  several  parts  above  the  kettle  contain- 
ing the  water,  each  with  perforated  bottom,  so  that 
the  steam  and  vapor  have  direct  access  to  the  food. 

The"bain  marie"  is  a  French  device  to  serve  the  same 
end.  One  large  kettle  of  water  contains  a  number  of 


201 


PRINCIPLES    OF    COOKERY. 


Making 
Tea 


Coffee 


Coffee     Pot     for     Making 
Drip  Coffee. 


deep  sauce  pans.  This  is  especially  useful  for  food 
already  cooked  which  is  to  be 
kept  hot  for  intermittent  serving 
in  restaurants. 

The  prevalent  idea  that  all 
food  must  be  served  the  moment 
it  is  cooked  is  due  in  many 
cases  to  imperfect  methods  for 
keeping  it  warm. 

For  tea  and  coffee  a  moder- 
ately soft  water  is  generally  con- 
sidered best. 

The  different  kinds  of  tea  re- 
ceive their  name  from  the  local- 
ity where  they  grow  and  from 
the  size  of  the  leaf,  the  younger  leaves  furnishing  the 
choicer  varieties.  (See  the  illustration  and  descrip- 
tion given  on  page  139  of  Food  and  Dietetics.) 

To  make  tea,  use  an  earthen  pot,  fresh  boiling  water, 
and  from  one-half  to  one  teaspoonful  of  tea  for  each 
half  pint  of  water.  Leave  covered  in  a  warm  place  to 
steep  for  three  to  five  minutes  and  serve.  For  cold 
tea  drain  from  the  grounds  at  once. 

Names  mean  little  in  brands  of  coffee  further  than 
to  indicate  the  original  home  of  a  special  variety  of  the 
plant.  The  berry  improves  in  quality  for  several  years 
but  loses  flavor  after  roasting  and  more  after  grinding. 
One  pound  of  good  coffee  measures  about  one  quart 
and  will  make  at  least  thirty  full  cups  of  strong  coffee. 
Thus  one  pound  should  supply  one  person  for  a  month 


202 


COOKING  IN   WATER. 


27 


or  four  persons  for  a  week.     It  is  better  to  buy  coffee 
in  small  lots  often,  unless  it  is  ground  as  used. 
Coffee  may  be  steeped  like  tea  or  boiled.   All  things 


STEAM  COOKER  WITH  DOORS. 

considered,  the  drip  coffee  pots  are  most  satisfactory 
and  the  beverage  thus  made  is  more  economical  and 
uniform  and  probably  less  injurious  than  when  it  is 
boiled. 


203 


28  PRINCIPLES    OF    COOKERY. 

ICE 

Ice  is  becoming  more  and  more  essential  to  civilize 
man,  not  only  for  summer  use  but  for  the  year  arounc 
The  future  promises  many  improvements  along  thi 
line,  in  more  rigid  inspection  of  the  sources  of  th 
natural  ice  supply,  in  improved  facilities  for  the  mant 
facture  of  artificial  ice,  perhaps  even  in  the  individu; 
home,  by  the  transmission  of  cold  brine  as  gas  an 
water  are  now  supplied  from  house  to  house  from  cen 
tral  plants,  making  it  possible  to  dispense  with  th 
iceman's  daily  round.  Patents  have  been  issued  fo 
methods  of  cooling  houses  in  summer  similar  to  thos 
used  in  cold  storage  plants.  Food  is  now  sent  long  dis 
tances  in  refrigerator  cars  and  the  whole  subject  c 
refrigeration  has  received  much  study.  It  has  bee 
found  that  different  foods  require  various  degrees  o 
temperature. 

cold  The  preservation  of  food  by  cold  storage  is  of  gres 
Storage  benefit  to  armies  and  navies,  but  is  not  an  unmixe 
blessing  to  the  housekeeper  for  it  has  upset  the  season 
of  foods,  and  when  we  can  obtain  a  food  at  any  tim 
of  the  year  it  loses  the  charm  it  possessed  when  th 
season  was  a  short  one.  Moreover,  though  food  i: 
cold  storage  does  not  spoil,  it  parts  with  something  an< 
undergoes  certain  changes  which  are  not  fully  ex 
plained  as  yet.  The  housekeeper  is  usually  safer  in  th 
use  of  canned  foods  than  of  those  subjected  to  a  lonj 
period  of  cold  storage. 


ICE. 


29 


The  household  refrigerator  is  frequently  expected  to 
do  impossibilities  in, caring  for  foods.  It  is  a  great 
labor  saver  when  properly  used  and  may  be  depended 
upon  the  year  around  and  not  merely  in  summer. 

It  should  be  placed  in  a  cool,  light,  airy  place,  con- 
venient to  kitchen  and  dining  room  unless  a  second 


A  Refrigerator  showing  Direction  of  Air  Currents. 

refrigerator  be  placed  there.  If  possible  place  it  near 
the  door  so  that  the  ice  man  need  not  track  all  over 
the  kitchen  floor.  The  cellar  is  no  place  for  a  re- 
frigerator. A  good  cellar  is  a  safe  place  for  most 
foods,  and  a  poor  one  will  injure  the  refrigerator. 

In  many  households  the  cost  of  ice  is  more  than 
saved  by  the  preservation  of  food  that  would  other- 
wise be'  lost.  The  average  family  will  use  from  one  to 
two  dollars'  worth  of  ice  a  month  at  city  prices. 

In  modern  houses  the  water  pipe  from  the  ice  com- 


The 

Refrigerator 


205 


30  PRINCIPLES    OF    COOKERY. 

partment  of  the  refrigerator  is  often  connected  with 
the  sewer  pipe.  This  should  never  be  direct.  Let  the 
pipe  drip  into  a  spout. 

A  refrigerator  should  have  several  compartments, 
that  foods  like  milk  and  butter  may  be  kept  apart 
from  others.  The  coolest  place  is  usually  under 
the  ice.  A  tile  or  enamel  lined  refrigerator  has  many 
advantages,  but  any  that  are  properly  made  if  kept 
clean  will  do  good  work.  Any  break  should  be  repaired 
at  once,  for  an  overflow  of  water  or  a  crack  in  the  lin- 
ing may  cause  an  odor  which  will  flavor  all  food. 
Care  of  The  ice  should  be  washed  clean  before  putting  in 
Refrigerator  place  and  no  food  should  ever  be  placed  upon  it.  The 
jars  of  water  chilling  for  table  use  are  the  only  things 
to  be  allowed  beside  the  ice  in  its  compartment.  No 
food  should  be  put  away  while  warm. 

How  often  a  refrigerator  should  be  cleaned  depends 
upon  the  way  it  is  used.  If  nothing  is  allowed  to  spill 
or  rub  against  the  sides  or  shelves,  or,  when  this  hap- 
pens, if  it  is  cleaned  away  at  once,  and  if  nothing  stays 
there  until  unfit  for  food,  frequent  scalding  is  un- 
necessary. Every  week  or  fortnight  when  the  ice  is 
nearly  out  remove  shelves  and  scald  them  thoroughly 
and  wash  throughout. 

Glass  and  stone  jars,  deep  earthen  and  agate  plates 
are  the  best  utensils  in  which  to  put  foods  away  in  the 
refrigerator. 

The  principle  of  the  refrigerator  is  exactly  that  of 


206 


ICE.  31 

the  Aladdin  oven — a  closet  with  shelves  is  put  inside  a 
case  of  non-conducting  substance. 

On  the  same  plan,  our  ice  cream  freezers  are  built.      ice  cream 
The  outer  tub  is  a  non-conducting  substance  to  pre- 
vent the  entrance  of  heat. 

There  are  jugs  for  hot  water  and  coolers  for  ice 
water  constructed  according  to  the  same  idea. 

Salt  is  mixed  with  ice  because  its  affinity  for  water 
will  cause  the  ice  to  melt,  and  when  a  solid  changes  to 
liquid  form,  heat  is  absorbed  from  the  surrounding 
objects.  Cracked  ice  about  the  size  of  coarse  rock  salt 
is  used,  the  proportion  being  three  parts  ice  to  one  of 
salt. 

Ice  cream,  custard,  or  fruit  juice  to  be  frozen,  should 
be  more  highly  flavored  and  sweetened  than  if  it  were 
to  be  eaten  at  an  ordinary  temperature.  The  organs  of 
taste  are  benumbed  by  the  cold,  and  a  stronger  flavor 
is  necessary  to  produce  an  effect.  The  cost  of  ice  for 
making  frozen  desserts  is  less  than  the  cost  of  fuel  for 
cooking  many. 


207 


Uncooked 
Food 


Preserving 
Food 


PREPARATION  AND  PRESERVATION  OF  FOODS 

All  processes  of  cooking  are  the  result  of  gradual 
evolution.  Nature  ripens  fruits  and  seeds  in  the  sun- 
light. Dry  nuts  and  seeds  are  stored  by  squirrels  and 
other  creatures.  Primitive  men  were  but  little  in  ad- 
vance of  the  squirrel  when  they  saved  different  grains 
and  pounded  or  parched  them  for  food. 

We  may  understand  better  the  origin  of  our  proc- 
esses of  cooking  if  we  first  consider  the  foods  avail- 
able without  special  preparation.  Tropical  countries 
have  always  afforded  a  variety  of  fruits  capable  of  sus- 
taining human  life.  It  is  estimated  that  many  more 
persons  may  be  supported  on  a  given  piece  of  ground 
planted  to  bananas  than  by  the  same  surface  planted 
with  any  crop  in  a  temperate  climate.  The  breadfruit, 
fig,  date,  and  raisin  are  other  important  fruit  foods. 

In  temperate  climates  without  knowledge  of  agricul- 
ture mankind  must  depend  largely  upon  animal  foods, 
and  doubtless  here  would  come  the  first  application  of 
heat  to  change  the  flavor  or  to  aid  in  preservation  of 
the  food  from  day  to  day. 

The  drying  of  fruits  and  the  smoking  of  meats  natu- 
rally were  the  earliest  methods  of  preserving  foods. 
Probably  the  preservative  action  of  smoke  was  acci- 
dentally discovered  and  the  salting  of  fish  may  have 
been  derived  naturally  from  its  association  with  salt 
water. 

Since  all  foods  are  mainly  water  it  was  an  immense 
advantage  to  wandering  tribes  to  reduce  their  burdens 

32 


208 


PRESERVING  FOOD.  33 

by  drying  their  foods.  Even  the  most  primitive  house- 
keepers discovered  that  in  proportion  as  food  parted 
with  water  it  was  less  liable  to  ferment,  mould,  or  de- 
cay, though  the  scientific  reason  for  this  that  most  bac- 
teria can  live  and  develop  more  rapidly  in  fluids  has 
only  been  discovered  recently  by  bacteriologists. 

The  modern  housekeeper  seems  to  be  losing  the  art      Dried 
of  drying  foods,  yet  in  many  cases  that  mode  of  preser- 
vation is  more  desirable  than  canning  or  cold  storage. 


Dried  Prunes  Before  and  After  Soaking. 

One  reason  why  dried  fruits  have  fallen  into  dis- 
repute is  this :  To  remove  the  discoloration  which  takes 
place  when  cut  fruits  are  dried  or  evaporated  in  fac- 
tories they  are  often  bleached  by  sulphur  and  suffer 
loss  of  flavor.  Another  reason  for  not  using  dried 
foods  is  that  it  takes  time  to  soak  them. 

When  they  are  to  be  made  ready  for  use  the  first 
step  is  to  supply  as  much  water  as  they  lost  from 
evaporation.  This  is  best  accomplished  by  long  soak- 
ing without  heat,  merely  cooking  them  enough  at  the 
end  to  soften  tough  fibres  and  to  prevent  fermenta- 
tion. 


209 


34  PRINCIPLES    OF    COOKERY. 

Honey  and  olive  oil  may  be  considered  with  the  food 
products  requiring  little  preparation.  They  were 
commonly  used  by  the  ancients. 

Nuts  Nuts  are  an  important  food  in  some  parts  of  the 
world.  The  peasantry  of  southern  Europe  find  in  the 
chestnut  a  substitute  for  cereals.  It  is  made  more  di- 
gestible by  a  partial  cooking.  The  neglect  of  nuts  in 
our  country  is  due  to  the  cheapness  of  cereal  products 
but  there  is  an  increasing  use  of  them  as  a  substitute 
for  meats.  Average  shelled  nuts  have  weight  for 
weight  about  twice  the  fuel  value  of  wheat  flour  be- 
cause they  contain  so  much  fat.  Chestnuts  are  about 
two-thirds  starch,  and  contain  little  fat.  Other  nuts  are 
from  one-third  to  two-thirds  fat. 

It  is  a  common  idea  that  nuts  are  very  indigestible. 
That  may  be  changed  if  we  learn  to  masticate  them 
properly  or  to  grind  them  and  combine  with  other 
foods  instead  of  eating  them  without  chewing  properly, 
as  dessert  after  sufficient  nourishment  has  been  taken. 

Nuts  and  fruits  supplement  each  other,  to  some  ex- 
tent, the  one  containing  what  the  other  lacks. 

The  leguminous  seeds,  peas,  beans,  lentils,  and  pea- 
nuts, are  somewhat  like  nuts,  but  are  not  so  rich  in 
fat  and  are  unpalatable  unless  cooked.  Most  of  our 
common  vegetables  are  the  result  of  ages  of  cultivation. 
Fruits  We  are  only  on  the  threshold  of  the  possibilities  of 
combining  and  preserving  fruits.  An  increased  use  of 
fruit,  fresh  and  preserved,  will  tend  to  cause  a  di- 
minished use  of  alcoholic  beverages.  Fruit  juice  is  one 


210 


CANNING.  35 

of  the  best  agents  to  quench  thirst.  A  desire  for  some 
other  beverage  than  water  may  be  taken  as  a  cry  for 
food.  Fruit  juices,  hot  or  cold,  will  better  supply  this 
desire  than  tea  or  coffee.  The  expressed  juice  of  real 
fruit  may  be  sterilized  and  then  charged  with  carbon 
dioxide,  as  well  as  the  chemical  compounds  now  sold 
as  soft  drinks. 

Inferior  fruits  and  skins  and  cores,  if  clean,  may  Jellies 
under  pressure  yield  juice  for  jellies,  or  to  flavor  other 
foods.  Fruits  may  be  blended,  pressed,  and  strained, 
and  used  in  many  ways  even  for  children  and  invalids 
when  the  solid  particles  and  seeds  would  prove  irritat- 
ing. The  juice  of  the  lemon  or  orange  and  the  pulp 
of  the  banana  may  thus  be  combined. 

Since  modern  housekeepers  lack  patience  to  dry  foods  canned 
and  soak  them  out  again  the  canning  factory  has  come 
to  their  aid.  Within  the  last  half  century  this  business 
has  developed  immensely.  Home  canning  cannot  com- 
pete with  that  of  the  factory,  because  there  a  higher 
temperature  is  gained  which  more  effectively  sterilizes 
the  food. 

Canned  foods  keep  because  the  bacteria  in  them  are 
destroyed  and  others  cannot  enter  because  the  air  is 
kept  out.  Fruit  will  not  spoil  even  if  the  jar  is  not 
full,  provided  the  air  above  it  has  been  sterilized. 

Unfortunately,  ignorance  of  the  processes  involved 
makes  the  consumer  demand  impossibilities  in  color 
and  form,  and  this  has  led  the  manufacturer  to  use 
artificial  colorings  freely. 


211 


36  PRINCIPLES    OF    COOKERY. 

Preservatives  of  different  kinds  have  been  found  to 
be  cheaper  than  care  and  time  expended  in  the  prepara- 
tion. Clean  foods  keep  better  than  unclean  ones,  but 
skilled  human  labor  is  the  means  to  cleanliness  and  that 
is  expensive. 

Preserving         Pound   for   pound  preserves   which   include  jellies 
sugar     mac[e  from  fruit  juice  and  marmalades  from  fruit  pulp 
with  equal  weight  of  sugar  keep  even  if  exposed  to  air, 
because  bacteria  do  not  flourish  in  dense  substances. 

Some  fruits  are  preserved  half  by  drying  in  the  sun- 
shine, half  by  sugar.  Spiced  fruits  were  more  common 
before  the  days  of  air-tight  jars,  for  spices  are  enemies 
of  bacteria. 

Canning  The  cannin§"  of  fo°d  is  not  a  complicated  process. 
Everything  must  be  clean,  that  is,  free  from  spores 
of  mould  or  germs  that  promote  decay.  Such  cleanli- 
ness may  be  accomplished  in  part  by  water,  partly  by 
heat.  The  jars,  covers,  tunnels,  and  spoons  'must  be 
subjected  to  boiling  water  to  render  them  sterile.  They 
are  usually  put  in  cold  water  which  is  slowly  brought 
to  the  boiling  point.  The  scalding  of  tomatoes  and 
peaches  not  only  renders  the  skin  easy  of  removal  but 
sterilizes  the  outside  so  that  nothing  is  rubbed  on  to  the 
inner  surface  as  it  is  peeled. 

An  accumulation  of  dust,  mould,  and  decayed  por- 
tions, even  if  each  be  slight,  cannot  but  affect  the  re- 
sult. Therefore  the  fruit  for  any  purpose  must  be  care- 
fully picked  over  and  washed.  Very  juicy  fruits,  like 
currants,  may  have  the  juice  expressed  without  first 


212 


CANNING. 


37 


Cooking,  while  others,  like  the  crab  apple,  require  the 
effect  of  heat  to  start  the  juice. 

The  utensils  for  cooking  and  straining  should  not  be 
of  metal  if  the  best  flavors  of  the  fruit  are  to  be  re- 
tained. Agate  or  earthen  ware  kettles,  wooden  spoons, 
and  linen  strainers  are  desirable  for  this  work.  If 


'LIGHTNING." 


PRESERVE  JARS. 


IMPROVED  "MASON." 


necessary  to  use  metal  anywhere,  do  it  as  quickly  as 
possible,  and  never  leave  an  iron  spoon  in  a  kettle  of 
cooked  fruit. 

Sugar  is  not  essential  to  canning,  but  is  usually 
added  for  flavor  and  because  fruit  cooked  in  a  syrup 
keeps  its  shape  better  than  when  cooked  in  water. 

The  best  jars  are  those  having  glass  covers  and 
fastening  with  a  spring.  The  screw  tops  are  easily 
rendered  imperfect  and  are  hard  to  close  and  open. 


Preserve 
Jars 


213 


&8  PRINCIPLES  OF   COOKERY. 

The  less  lettering  there  is  in  the  glass  the  surer  we 
are  of  keeping  it  clean.  The  rubber  rings  spoil 
quickly  and  none  that  are  stretched  or  brittle 
should  be  used.  New  ones  are  usually  required  every 
year.  Pint  jars  are  more  satisfactory  for  the  average 
family  than  the  larger  sizes. 

A  grocer's  tunnel  is  desirable  for  filling  the  jars, 
and  a  half-pint  dipper  with  a  long  handle  is  another 
help. 

The  essential  points  in  canning  fruit  may  be  summed 
up  in  very  few  words.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  have 
the  fruit  and  everything  that  comes  in  contact  with  it 
sterilized,  and  then  keep  the  air  away  from  it.  That  is, 
the  fruit  and  whatever  it  touches  must  be  raised  to  a 
sufficient  degree  of  heat  to  destroy  any  micro-organisms 
already  there  that  would  cause  change  of  form  or  de- 
cay. This  being  done  care  must  be  taken  that  no  others 
are  allowed  to  enter  through  the  air.  There  is  no 
magic  about  it,  only  constant  watchfulness. 

Gentle  cooking,  long  continued,  seems  to  be  fatal  to 
the  bacteria,  which  might  work  so  much  ill,  and  this 
method  is  more  conducive  to  preserving  the  natural 
appearance  of  the  fruit  than  is  intense  heat  for  a  short 
period. 

Fruit,  vegetables,  milk,  and  meats  all  are  prepared 
in  similar  fashion.  Animal  foods  spoil  easily  because 
of  their  composition. 


214 


CHOICE   OF  FOOD 

Primitive  man  made  use  of  anything  near  his  hand 
to  satisfy  his  need  and  accidents  and  extreme  hunger 
made  many  foods  appetizing  to  our  ancestors  which 
might  not  appeal  to  us  today  if  we  had  not  inherited  the 
taste  for  them. 

According  to  W.  Mattieu  Williams,  "the  fact  that 
we  use  the  digestive  and  nutrient  apparatus  of  sheep, 
oxen,  etc.,  for  the  preparation  of  our  food  is  merely  a 
transitory  barbarism."  Other  authorities  agree  with 
him  that  the  art  of  cooking  may  some  time  be  so  de- 
veloped as  to  enable  us  to  prepare  the  coarser  vegetable 
substances  in  an  easily  assimilated  form  without  de- 
pending upon  animals  as  middle  ,men. 

The  art  of  the  cook  has  done  much  to  make  un-  -The  Art 
likely  food  materials  attractive,  but  there  is  another  of  Cookins 
phase  of  the  question,  and  that  is  the  problem  how 
to  make  what  we  know  is  nourishing  both  pleasant 
and  attractive.  The  cook  of  the  past  had  to  make 
the  best  possible  use  of  the  meager  nutrients  at  hand. 
The  cook  of  the  present  and  future  has  the  harvests  of 
the  whole  world  within  reach  all  the  year  around. 
How  shall  such  abundant  material  be  combined  to  sat- 
isfy the  palate  without  overloading  the  digestive  or- 
gans ? 

More  important  still,  how  shall  we  select  and  pre- 
pare foods  that  they  may  produce  sufficient  energy  in 
the  human  body  for  the  great  tasks  awaiting  it  in  our 
complex  civilization. 


215 


4o 


PRINCIPLES    OF    COOKERY. 


Classification 
of  Food 


Organic 
Foods 


During  the  last  twenty  years  or  less  much  material 
has  been  published  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture recording  the  results  of  investigations.  Many 
of  these  pamphlets  can  be  secured  for  the  asking. 

For  practical  use  all  the  principal  substances  found 
in  our  foods  may  be  classified  under  five  heads :  water, 
mineral  matter,  protein,  fat,  and  carbohydrate. 
The  first,  and  its  importance  in  cooking,  has  already 
been  considered.  The  second  appears  in  different  forms 
in  all  foods,  rarely  exceeding  one  per  cent,  of  their 
natural  weight.  This  it  is  which  remains  as  ash  when 
a  food  is  burned.  It  is  most  prominent  in  the  refuse 
portions  of  food  which  are  removed  before  coming  to 
the  table,  such  as  the  husks  and  bones.  Some  of  these 
mineral  matters  are  readily  soluble  in  water,  hence  are 
lost  when  no  use  is  made  of  the  water  in  which  vege- 
tables are  boiled. 

Common  salt  is  the  principal  mineral  substance  in 
use  in  cooking. 

The  other  three  great  classes  of  food  substances 
are  known  as  organic  compounds, — the  protein,  fat, 
and  carbohydrate. 

The  proteins  are  subdivided  into  many  classes,  but  so 
far  as  practical  cooking  is  concerned,  little  need  be  said 
of  these  here.  Since  this  type  of  material  constitutes 
about  one-fifth  of  the  human  body  by  weight  it  must 
be  found  in  the  daily  food.  Lean  meat,  eggs,  milk 


*Following  the  nomenclature  of  the  U.  S.  Department  o 
Agriculture,  the  term  protein  is  used  to  denote  all  classes  o 
nitrogenous  foods. 


216 


CHOICE   OF  FOOD.  4! 

curd,  and  portions  of  grains  and  seeds  are  the  princi- 
pal sources  of  this  class  of  food.  As  a  whole,  protein 
of  vegetable  origin  is  more  slowly  and  less  perfectly 
absorbed  than  animal  protein.  The  principal  duty  of 
nitrogenous  foods  is  to  build  up  the  body  and  to  keep 
it  in  repair. 

Fats  are  obtained  from  both  animal  and  vegetable  Fatg 
sources  and  for  the  convenience  of  the  cook  are  com- 
monly separated  by  heat  or  pressure.  Considerable  fat 
is  stored  as  a  reserve  fund  in  the  normal  human  body. 
Its  principal  office  is  that  of  fuel  to  keep  the  body's  ma- 
chinery going. 

Carbohydrates  are  chiefly  of  vegetable  origin  and  in-      Carix 
elude  starch  and  sugar.    They  are  not  apparent  to  any      hydrs 
extent  in  the  body  but  are  important  fuel  foods,  though 
more  than  two  pounds  of  starch  or  sugar  would  be  re- 
quired to  produce  as  much  energy  or  bodily  heat  as  one 
pound  of  fat. 

The  provider  of  food,  the  cook,  and  the  consumer 
all  should  be  familiar  with  the  composition  of  com- 
mon foods  in  order  that  the  daily  meals  may  be  adapted 
not  only  to  purse  and  palate  but  to  climate  and  the  con- 
dition of  individual  bodies. 


217 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 

Milk  is  a  complete  food  for  the  young  animal  because 
it  contains  the  five  fundamental  types  of  food  ma- 
terial— water,  mineral  matter,  fat,  carbohydrate,  and 
protein. 

The  analysis  of  average  milk  is  about  as  follows : 

Per  cent. 

Water    87 

Mineral    01 

Fat    04 

Casein .03 

Sugar    05 

i.oo 

Since  the  fat  is  the  most  valuable  portion  commer- 
cially, dairymen  study  to  feed  their  cows  in  such  a 
way  as  to  increase  it,  and  in  some  instances  milk  has 
been  produced  containing  6  per  cent  of  fat. 
Use  of  Though  mainly  water,  milk  is  a  valuable  nutritious 
Mllk  food  and  should  be  used  freely  by  itself  and  in  com- 
bination with  other  food  materials,  in  soups,  sauces, 
and  puddings.  When  we  remember  what  the  depart- 
ment of  agriculture  has  proved  for  us,  that  a  quart  of 
milk  is  quite  as  nourishing  as  a  quart  of  oysters  for 
which  we  pay  six  or  eight  times  -as  much,  we  can 
see  that  it  is  desirable  to  use  it  more  freely  than  is 
generally  done.  Especially  during  the  summer  months 
we  do  well  to  substitute  milk  and  cheese  for  meats. 
There  are  average  families  which  do  not  use  over  a 
pint  of  milk  a  day ;  there  are  others  who  find  it  neces- 

42 


218 


MILK.  43 

sary  to  take  a  gallon,  and  the  meat  bill  in  the  latter 
cases  becomes  proportionately  small.  A  pint  of  milk 
a  day  is  not  an  excessive  allowance  for  each  member 
of  a  family,  though  many  households  consume  much 
less. 

To  study  the  composition  of  milk  put  a  quart  of 
fresh  milk  in  a  glass  jar  and  leave  it  twenty-four  hours 
or  longer  until  it  is  thick  and  sour.  What  percentage 
of  the  whole  is  the  cream?  Remove  the  layer  of 
cream  on  top  to  another  jar,  screw  on  the  top,  and 
shake  until  the  fat  separates  from  the  watery  por- 
tion of  the  milk.  Collect  the  butter  on  a  spoon,  wash 
out  the  milk  by  pressing  and  folding  with  a  knife. 
Weigh  or  estimate  carefully  the  value  of  the  butter  ob- 
tained. What  proportion  of  the  original  bulk  of  milk 
does  it  represent  ?  Persons  fond  of  unsalted  butter  may 
thus  prepare  it  for  themselves. 

Why  is  salt  added  to  butter  ? 

The  remainder  of  the  milk,  now  a  thick  mass  of 
curd,  may  be  pressed  out  with  a  spoon  or  cut  with 
a  knife  to  show  the  greenish  water  known  as  whey. 
What  nutritive  substances  are  there  in  this? 

Turn  the  thick  milk  into  a  two-quart  pan  and  fill 
with  hot  water,  in  twenty  minutes  drain  the  water  off 
through  a  strainer,  that  no  curd  need  be  lost,  and  pour 
on  more  hot  water.  Do  this  several  times  until  the 
curd  loses  its  sour  taste  and  has  contracted,  but  do 
not  allow  it  to  become  too  hard.  If  boiling  water  is 
used  the  curd  will  become  unpalatable  and  indigestible. 


219 


44  PRINCIPLES    OF    COOKERY. 

Buttons  have  been  made  of  sour  milk  treated  by  heat 
and  pressure. 

Sour  Press  as  much  water  as  possible  from  the  curd  and 
cheese  compare  the  quantity  with  the  original  amount  of 
milk.  Remember  that  this  still  contains  much  water. 
Now  combine  the  curd  with  butter  or  thick  cream,  salt 
it  and  shape  in  small  balls  or  pack  in  cups.  Thus 
we  learn  something  of  the  value  of  milk  and  have 
made  a  sour  milk  cheese  more  palatable  than  when 
the  whole  mass  of  curdled  milk  is  heated  on  the  stove 
or  strained  in  a  cloth. 

junket  With  prepared  rennet  in  liquid  or  tablet  form  the 
curd  and  whey  of  sweet  milk  may  be  separated.  The 
milk  should  be  warmed  slightly  before  the  dissolved 
rennet  is  added,  then  chilled  in  the  dishes  from  which 
it  is  to  be  served.  This  is  known  as  junket  or  rennet 
custard. 

Absolute  cleanliness  is  essential  for  every  utensil  to 
come  in  contact  with  milk.  The  souring  of  the  milk 
is  .due  to  the  action  of  bacteria  which  come  to  it  from 
contact  with  utensils  and  the  air.  Its  fluid  form  and 
nutritive  material  afford  a  medium  peculiarly  favor- 
able to  the  development  of  germs  of  disease,  as  well  as 
to  the  growth  of  useful  bacteria  which  aid  in  butter 
and  cheese  making. 

The  growth  of  such  micro-organisms  is  hastened  by 
moderate  heat,  but  most  of  them  are  killed  by  raising 
the  milk  to  the  boiling  point. 

Sterilization   requires   a  temperature  of  two  hun- 


220 


MILK. 


45 


dred  and  twelve  degrees  F,  continued  for  about 
twenty  minutes ;  this  process  usually  changes  the  flavor 
of  the  milk  so  that  it  is  disagreeable  to  many  palates. 
The  high  temperature  also  causes  the  fat  globules 
to  separate  instead  of  being  retained  in  the  form  of 
cream. 

Pasteurization  takes  its  name  from  the  noted  French 
scientist,  and  consists  in  raising  the  milk  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  about  one  hundred  and  fifty-five  degrees  F.  By 
this  means  the  flavor  of  the  milk  is  unchanged. 

The  cook  finds  it  safe  to  scald  the  milk  for  soups, 
bread,  cr  puddings,  to  prevent  its  souring  during  the 
process,  before  cooking  it  with  the  other  ingredients. 
There  is  a  gain  in  the  time  of  cooking  when  the  milk- 
is  heated  while  the  other  materials  are  being  pre- 
pared. 

A  bit  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  dissolved  in  milk  before 
it  is  heated  often  will  neutralize  any  incipient  acidity 
and  make  it  usable  for  puddings  or  soups.  The 
"cream"  of  tomato  soup  is  liable  to  curdle  unless  the 
acid  of  the  tomato  is  neutralized  by  soda  or  the  milk 
thickened  with  flour  before  the  two  parts  are  combined. 
It  is  safer  with  all  "cream"  soups  to  keep  the  stock 
and  thickened  milk  apart  until  just  before  using. 

Lemon  or  other  acid  fruit  juices  are  sometimes 
mixed  with  milk  for  sherbet  without  curdling  if,  before 
the  juice  is  added,  the  milk  is  thoroughly  chilled  in  the 
freezer  can. 


221 


46  PRINCIPLES  OF   COOKERY. 

Salt  sometimes  curdles  milk,  especially  when  it  is 
added  to  hot  milk. 

Since  the  solid  portions  of  milk  readily  adhere  to 
the  bottom  of  the  saucepan  placed  in  direct  contact 
with  heat,  and  the  resulting  burned  flavor  rapidly  pene- 
trates the  whole  of  the  milk,  a  double  boiler  or  its 
equivalent,  one  dish  set  in  another  of  boiling  water, 
is  the  best  way  to  heat  milk. 

Milk  is  an  important  ingredient  in  preparing  cocoa 
and  chocolate,  and  such  beverages  rank  with  soup  in 
nutritive  value.  Hot  milk  sipped  slowly  is  a  simple 
remedy  for  exhaustion  and  sleeplessness.  Hot  milk 
should  be  served  with  coffee  when  cream  is  not  avail- 
able. The  milk  soups  are  valuable  foods  and  have  as 
their  foundation  the  white  sauce  described  further  on. 

Most  of  our  puddings  require  milk,  especially  the 
cereal  and  custard  varieties. 

cooking  Because  there  are  solids  in  the  milk  more  time  must 
be  allowed  for  the  grains  of  rice  or  corn  meal  to 
absorb  the  moisture  than  when  cooked  in  water.  The 
protein  portions  of  the  milk  have  somewhat  the  same 
effect  as  the  egg  used  to  coat  the  croquette  or  oyster 
before  frying.  If  the  particles  of  grain  are  thus  var- 
nished over  they  cannot  absorb  moisture  as  rapidly 
as  from  clear  water.  Hence,  it  is  often  advisable  to 
cook  the  grains  in  water  first  and  finish  the  process 
in  the  milk. 

In  making  blanc  mange  from  Irish  moss,  if  the 
moss  is  first  cooked  in  a  small  quantity  of  water  and 


222 


MILK.  47 

the  thick  paste  strained  before  it  is  added  to  the  milk, 
there  is  no  loss  of  milk.  When  the  moss  is  cooked  di- 
rectly in  the  milk  there  is  some  loss  of  milk  when  the 
mosa  is  strained  out. 

The  baked  Indian  meal  pudding  and  the  creamy  rice 
pudding  require  long,  gentle  baking.  There  is  a 
continual  evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  surface  of 


"BLANC-MANGE." 

the  pudding  pan,  and  really  a  condensing  of  the  milk. 
In  proportion  as  the  pudding  dish  is  refilled  with  milk, 
the  pudding  increases  in  nutritive  value. 

Milk  is  commonly  used  for  mixing  dough  of  many 
types  and  this  adds  to  the  nutritive  value  of  bread 
and  cakes. 

Bread  made  of  milk  or  part  milk  will  have  a  browner, 
tenderer  crust  than  bread  made  wholly  with  water. 
There  seems  to  be  good  ground,  however,  for  the  prev- 
alent idea  that  bread  or  cake  made  with  milk  does 


223 


48  PRINCIPLES    OF    COOKERY. 

not  keep  so  well  as  that  made  with  water.  A  cer- 
tain cheesy  flavor  develops  where  milk  is  a  principal 
ingredient. 

Sour  Sour  milk  is  often  used  for  mixing  griddle  cakes  and 
quick  doughs,  because  the  acid  it  contains  will  be  neu- 
tralized by  the  soda  added,  and  thus  produce  the  effer- 
vescence which  makes  the  dough  light.  The  souring 
process  seems  to  have  so  affected  the  protein  sub- 
stances in  the  milk  that  such  a  dough  is  tenderer  than 
one  made  with  sweet  milk  and  baking  powder.  The 
use  of  sour  milk  will  be  further  treated  in  the  section 
on  doughs. 

Skimmed  For  doughs,  soups,  and  puddings,  in  which  additional 
fat  is  introduced,  skimmed  milk  may  be  used  as  well 
as  full  milk. 

The  use  of  cream  in  well-to-do  families  is  increas- 
ing. Whipped  cream  is  demanded  as  a  garnish  or 
sauce  for  many  desserts  quite  complete  in  themselves. 

The  process  of  beating  or  "whipping"  cream  gives 
it  an  attractive  appearance,  and  by  expanding  its  par- 
ticles probably  makes  it  more  digestible. 

BUTTER 

Butter  is  one  of  the  most  digestible  forms  of  fat.  An 
ounce  of  butter  a  day  is  a  fair  allowance  for  each 
person  when  meats,  lard,  olive  oil,  and  cream  are  used. 
To  test  this  in  your  own  case,  divide  one  ounce  of 
butter  in  three  portions,  one  for  each  meal,  and  see 
whether  you  naturally  use  less  or  want  more.  Or,  this 


224 


BUTTER.  49 

may  be  tried  in  a  family  by  shaping  a  portion  of  but- 
ter into  balls  with  butter  paddles  and  noting  the 
amount  consumed  by  each  person  at  the  table.  An 
ounce  of  butter  is  easily  secured  by  cutting  a  quarter 
pound  pat  into  quarters.  Or,  if -that  is  not  available, 
measure  the  butter.  Two  level  or  one  round  table- 
spoonful  is  equivalent  to  one  ounce.  A  pound  of  but- 
ter will  measure  one  pint. 


Individual  Shortcakes  to  be  Served  with   Whipped   Cream. 

Butter  is  probably  rendered  slower  of  digestion  by 
cooking,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  wiser  to  flavor  foods 
with  it  after  they  are  cooked.  Often  it  is  better  to 
allow  the  individual  eater  to  butter  the  broiled  meat, 
or  fish,  or  mashed  vegetables,  according  to  his  own 
taste.  Then  there  need  be  no  waste  if  a  portion  of 
the  whole  dish  is  not  eaten,  and  if  the  food  is  re- 
heated the  flavor  is  better. 

In  one  dietary  study  of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture of  the  United  States  (Bulletin  75  from  *he  office  of 
Experiment  Station),  so  much  butter  came  back  in 


225 


White 
Sauce 


50  PRINCIPLES    OF    COOKERY. 

the  platters  where  it  had  been  poured  over  steaks, 
chops,  and  fish,  that  it  was  assumed  l^hat  none  was  con- 
sumed. .Certainly,  in  every  household  considerable  but- 
ter and  other  valuable  fat  finds  its  way  to  the  dish 
water.  One  of  the  first  steps  in  the  application  of 
science  to  housekeeping  is  to  stop  such  needless  waste. 

In  a  glass  measure  cup,  or  a  tumbler,  put  a  quar- 
ter of  a  pound  of  butter,  set  the  glass  in  a  pan  of 
warm  water  and  leave  until  the  butter  melts. 

Estimate  the  percentage  of  clear  fat. 

What  other  substances  appear  to  be  present? 

How  does  this  explain  the  sour  and  cheesy  tastes 
sometimes  noticed  in  butter? 

Milk  thickened  by  flour  and  made  richer  with  but- 
ter and  flavored,  is  known  as  milk  gravy,  drawn  but- 
ter, or  white,  or  cream  sauce.  It  is  a  substantial  food 
in  itself  and  forms  a  valuable  addition  to  fish,  eggs, 
meats,  and  vegetables.  By  its  addition  a  small  por- 
tion of  any  food  substance  is  extended  and  made  to  do 
more  service,  and  flavors  too  pronounced  to  be  agree- 
able to  all  are  much  modified. 

There  are  several  ways  of  compounding  this  sauce 
which  apply  to  other  sauces  in  which  butter  is  the 
principal  ingredient.  A  general  formula  covering  the 
ordinary  sauces — white,  tomato,  and  brown — is  this: 
one  ounce  of  butter,  one-half  ounce  of  flour,  and  one- 
half  pint  of  liquid ;  or,  to  express  the  same  quantities 
in  other  terms,  two  level  tablespoons  of  butter,  the 
same  of  flour,  and  one  cup  of  liquid. 


226 


t.    Melt  the  butter  in  a  saucepan,  stir  in  the  dry     Method 
flour,  cook  and  stir  until  frothy  all  over,  then  draw     ofMak 
to  a  cooler  part  of  the  stove  and  stir  while  adding 
the  liquid  hot  or  cold,  then  cook  again  till  thick,  stir- 
ring till  smooth. 

2.  Another  way  is  to  rub  butter  and  flour  together 
and  stir  into  the  warm  liquid  in  a  double  boiler,  then 
stir  till  thick  and  smooth. 

3.  When  thin  cream  is  substituted  for  butter  and 
milk,  or  when  less  butter  is  to  be  used,  rub  the  flour 
smoothly  with  a  little  cold  liquid  and  stir  into  the  re- 
mainder, which  should  be  hot,  and  cook  over  water 
until  smooth.    Then  add  butter  and  season. 

The  theory  of  the"  first  method  is  that  the  butter  at- 
tains a  slightly  higher  temperature  than  the  milk  and  if 
the  flour  is  combined  with  the  hot  butter  it  is  cooked 
more  quickly  and  thoroughly  than  when  put  into 
milk. 

In  the  second  case,  longer  time  is  required,  but  the 
flavor  of  the  butter  is  changed  less  than  by  the  first 
method. 

The  third  way  is  more  economical  of  butter. 

Butter  is  also  used  for  brown  sauces.     These  are     _ 

Brown 

made  after  the  first  plan  for  the  white  sauce,  but  the      Sauce 
butter  is  allowed  to  brown  before  the  flour  is  put  in, 
and  is  cooked  until  a  reddish  brown  hue  is  acquired 
before  the  liquid,  which  is  usually  brown  meat  stock, 
is  added. 


227 


Varieties 

of  White 

Sauce 


Creamed 
Dishes 


$2  PRINCIPLES    OF    COOKERY. 

In  many  other  sauces  the  plan  is  similar  to  that 
followed  in  making  the  white  sauce,  but  meat  stock, 
strained  tomato,  or  other  vegetable  stocks,  are  used 
in  place  of  part  or  all  of  the  milk. 

These  sauces  are  the  foundation  of  many  entrees  or 
made  dishes,  such  as  croquettes  and  souffles. 

For  meat  or  fish  croquettes  the  sauce  is  made  of  a 
double  thickness  by  using  only  half  as  much  liquid. 
It  is  then  combined  with  about  an  equal  quantity  of 
meat,  seasoned  and  cooled,  when  the  mixture  may  be 
shaped.  Souffles  have  the  sauce  as  the  basis  and  the 
puffy  effect  is  produced  by  eggs. 

The  usual  white  sauce,  combined  with  an  equal  quan- 
tity of  meat,  fish  or  vegetable  stock,  gives  us  the  cream 
soup,  cream  of  chicken,  cream  of  cod,  cream  of  as- 
paragus, etc.,  etc. 

Since  butter  is  not  pure  fat  but  contains  water  and 
curd,  it  is  less  desirable  than  other  fats  for  greasing 
pans  unless  it  is  melted  and  the  fat  used  alone. 

Except  in  cases  when  it  is  necessary  to  brown  some- 
in  using  thing  quickly,  butter  should  not  be  used  for  frying  or 
or  sauteing.  It  is  too  expensive  and  burns  easily.  Be- 
cause of  the  quantity  of  milk,  often  sour,  contained  in 
butter,  it  is  not  strange  that  some  recipes  for  riclf 
cake  call  for  small  quantities  of  soda  to  balance  this 
acidity.  For  such  purposes,  butter  is  frequently 
washed  to  remove  milk  and  salt. 

That  butter  responds  quickly  to  changes  of  tempera- 
ture should  be  remembered  in  mixing  any  dough, 


precautions 


Butte 


228 


CHEESE. 


53 


like  pastry,  when  a    large    proportion    of    butter  is 
used. 

Slightly  rancid  butter  may  be  made  usable  for  some 
purposes  by  scalding  it  in  water,  then  chilling  and  re- 
moving the  cake  of  fat  on  top.  If  further  treatment 
is  necessary  the  fat  alone  may  be  heated  with  bits  of 
charcoal. 

CHEESE 

The  origin  of  cheese  is  probably  more  ancient  than 
that  of  butter.  It  is  a  form  of  dried  or  condensed  milk 
convenient  for  transportation.  Milk  is  nine-tenths 
water,  while  cheese  contains  but  a  trifle  over  three- 
tenths  water.  Average  cheese  is  about  one-third  each 
water,  fat,  and  casein. 

A  pound  of  cheese  costing  sixteen  cents  contains 
about  twice  as  much  nutritive  matter  as  a  pound  of 
meat  which  will  vary  in  price.  There  will  be  less 
waste  in  the  cheese  than  in  an  average  piece  of  meat. 
Moreover,  cheese  has  the  advantage  of  keeping  better 
than  the  meat  under  adverse  conditions.  Its  disad- 
vantages are  that  because  of  its  concentration  it  is"  not 
easy  of  digestion.  This  may  be  overcome  somewhat 
by  diluting  the  cheese  with  milk,  as  is  done  in  many 
of  the  rarebits,  fondues,  and  souffles.  The  addition  of 
a  small  quantity  of  bicarbonate  of  potash  or  soda'  aids 
in  making  cheese  soluble.  There  is  danger  that  the 
cheese  will  be  over  cooked.  When  merely  melted  it  is 
probably  quite  as  digestible  if  used  moderately,  as 


Rancid 

Butter 


229 


54  PRINCIPLES    OF    COOKERY. 

many  of  our  common  ways  of  preparing  meat.  Judg- 
ing from  the  types  of  people  who  depend  upon  cheese 
largely  it  might  be  used  with  us  more  generally  than 
it  is.  The  annual  consumption  of  cheese  in  this  coun- 
try is  only  about  three  pounds  per  capita.  We  might 
well  use  cheese  more  freely  in  cooked  dishes,  for  flavor 
as  well  as  for  nutriment. 


230 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY, 


PART  I. 


Read  Carefully*  Place  your  name  and  address  on  the 
first  sheet  of  the  test.  Use  a  light  grade  of  paper  and  write 
on  one  side  of  the  sheet  only.  Do  not  copy  answers  from  the 
lesson  paper.  Use  your  own  words,  so  that  the  instructor 
may  know  that  you  understand  the  subject.  Read  the  les- 
son paper  a  number  of  times  before  attempting1  to  answer 
the  questions. 


1. 


2. 


Give  a  rough  diagram  of  the  stove  or  range  with 
which  you  are  most  familiar.  Show  where  in 
the  oven  and  on  top  of  the  stove  the  heat  is 
greatest,  and  explain  why. 

What  is  your  method  of  starting  and  regulating 
a  coal  fire? 

Counting  the  time  required  to  keep  fire  and  stove 
in  good  condition,  what  is  the  most  economical 
fuel  within  your  reach? 


Fig.  1.  Fig.  2, 

4.     Fig.    i   represents  the  dial  of  gas  meter  at  the 
beginning  of  the  month;  Fig.  2,  at  the  end  of 


231 


PRINCIPLES    OF    COOKERY. 

the  month.  What  is  the  reading  in  each  case, 
and  what  will  be  the  amount  of  the  bill  at  $1.25 
per  1,000  feet  of  gas? 

5.  If  you  use  a  gas  stove,  read  the  meter  before  and 

after  a  day's  baking  and  find  the  cost  of  fuel. 
If  other  fuel  is  used,  give  the  amount  and  ap- 
proximate cost. 

6.  Where,  in  your  experience,  would  a  thermometer 

be  helpful  in  cookery  ? 

7.  Mention   several    foods    requiring   the   action   of 

heat,  yet  which  need  little  preparation  and  few 
utensils. 

8.  What  different  ways  have  we  of  cooking  with 

the  aid  of  water  ? 

9.  Is  it  possible  to  cook  in  water  that  does  not  boil  ? 

Give  examples. 

10.  What  gain  in  cooking  certain  foods  over,  rather 

than  in,  water?  Describe  utensils  by  which  this 
can  be  accomplished. 

11.  What  kinds  of  foods  should  be  kept  in  the  refrig- 

erator? Describe  the  refrigerator,  or  whatever 
is  used  in  its  place. 

12.  What  are  the  essential  points  in  canning  fruit? 

13.  How  should  dried  fruit  and  vegetables  be  pre- 

pared to  restore  them  as  nearly  as  possible  to 
their  original  condition? 

14.  Are  there  any  substances  suitable  to  add  to  foods 

as  preservatives? 


232 


PRINCIPLES    OF    COOKERY. 

15.  What  are  the  relative  merits  of  paper  bags, 
wooden  boxes,  tin  cans,  and  glass  jars  for  keep- 
ing groceries  in  pantry  or  store  closet? 

1 5.  How  can  you  determine  for  yourself  that  there  is 
water  and  fat  in  milk,  cheese,  and  butter? 

17.  Make  a  menu  for  meals  for  two  days,  introducing 

as  many  dishes  as  feasible  that  contain  milk  or 
cheese. 

18.  Suggest  treatment  and  uses  for  sour  milk,  dry 

cheese,  and  butter   of  poor  flavor. 

19.  Make  a  white  sauce  three  times  or  more,  putting 

the  ingredients  together  in  different  order  each 
time,  and  report  which  seems  the  most  satis- 
factory and  expeditious. 

20.  Are  there  any  questions  which  you  would  like  an- 

swered, relating  to  the  topics  taken  up  in  this 
lesson  ? 

NOTE. — After    completing    the    test    sign  your  full  name. 


233 


I 


234 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY 

PART  II 


EGGS 

Since  the  egg  is  similar  to  milk  in  composition,  both 
containing  water,  fat,  and  protein,  without  starch, 
and  as  there  are  many  simple  dishes  in  which  milk  and 
eggs  are  combined,  it  is  natural  that  that  should  be  our 
next  topic. 

The  egg  may  seem  a  small  article  to  have  much  space 
devoted  to  it,  but  there  is  no  other  food  so  indispensable 
to  the  art  of  cooking.  A  French  chef  has  compared 
the  office  of  eggs  in  cooking  to  the  usefulness  of  the,  an, 
and  a,  in  conversation,  both  would  be  difficult  without 
them. 

Aside  from  its  great  food  value,  and  there  is  no  egg 
of  bird  that  may  not  be  eaten,  the  egg  is  a  general 
harmonizer  in  the  kitchen ;  it  serves  t©  thicken  cus- 
tards and  sauces ;  to  clarify  soups  and  jellies ;  to  make 
a  coating  of  crumbs  adhere  to  chops  or  croquettes;  it 
puffs  up  souffles ;  it  leavens  a  whole  group  of  cakes ; 
it  garnishes  salads  and  emulsifies  oil  into  a  smooth,  rich 
dressing  for  them,  and  combined  with  odd  bits  of 
fish  or  meat,  it  makes  many  a  savory  dish  of  what 
would  otherwise  be  lost. 


235 


56  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKER^. 

The  composition  of  eggs  varies  with  the  kind  of  fowl 
and  its  food.  The  edible  portion  of  the  average  hen's 
egg  is  nearly  75  per  cent,  water,  12  per  cent,  protein, 
12  per  cent,  fat,  and  I  per  cent,  ash  or  mineral  mat- 
ter. 

Since  carbohydrates  are  lacking,  we  naturally  com- 
bine eggs  with  starches  and  sugar  which  supply  the 
class  of  substance  missing. 

Like  milk,  eggs  may  be  eaten  either  raw  or  cooked, 
and  the  ways  of  cooking  eggs,  however  elaborate  they 
seejn,  may  be  reduced  to  a  few  simple  processes. 

We  shall  have  the  key  to  all  cookery  of  eggs  if  we 
study  some  eggs  cooked  by  moderate  and  some  by 
intense  heat. 

Effect  To  see  how  the  egg  is  affected  by  different  degrees 
on  ?Ss  of  heat,  we  may  poach  several  eggs,  or  drop  them 
from  their  shells  into  water  at  different  temperatures. 
When  an  egg  is  dropped  into  a  saucepan  with  cold 
water,  and  heat  applied,  before  the  egg  begins  to  cook, 
the  egg  and  water  mingle  somewhat,  showing  that  a 
portion  of  the  raw  egg  is  soluble  in  cold  water.  As  the 
water  is  heated,  this  soluble  egg  becomes  cooked  and 
rises  in  a  thick  froth  on  top,  and  if  the  cooking  is 
continued  longer,  this  froth  may  contract  and  settle. 
This  point  is  turned  to  the  cook's  advantage  in  clear- 
ing jellies,  soup  stocks,  and  coffeec  Thus  even  the  lit- 
tle portion  of  the  egg  white  adhering  to  the  shell  is 
sometimes  utilized  for  clearing  coffee. 


236 


EGGS. 


57 


When  an  egg  is  dropped  directly  into  boiling  water, 
the  outer  portions  of  it  are  hardened  by  the  heat.  This 
cooked  egg  does  not  appear  to  be  soluble  itself  and, 
moreover,  protects  the  under  portion  until  that  also 
is  penetrated  by  the  heat. 

Experiment. — Boil  one  egg  rapidly ;  put  another  into 
the  boiling  water,  remove  from  the .  stove,  and  let 
stand  for  fifteen  minutes  or  more.  Compare  tempera- 
tures with  a  thermometer.  See  which  egg  is  more  ten- 
der, and  presumably,  more  easy  of  digestion. 

The  white  and  yolk  of  eggs  cook  at  different  tem- 
peratures, and  these  appear  to  vary  slightly  with  the 
freshness  of  the  egg.  For  general  use  it  is  sufficient  to 
remember  that  150°  to  180°  F  is  ample  heat  for  dishes 
composed  mainly  of  eggs  and  milk.  When  starch  is 
used,  a  higher  temperature  is  required,  and  whenever 
possible,  this  should  be  obtained  before  combination 
with  the  eggs.  Having  learned  this,  we  have  the  key 
to  the  successful  cooking  of  all  custards  and  the  like. 
A  custard  that  has  curdled,  or  wheyed,  or  settled  in 
the  center,  has  cooked  too  long,  or  in  too  hot  an  oven. 
The  custom  of  setting  a  custard  in  a  pan  of  water 
in  the  oven  is  wise,  for  the  moisture  lowers  the  tem- 
perature of  the  oven.  Excessive  beating  of  eggs  may 
aid  the  curdling  of  the  custard ;  it  certainly  is  a  waste 
of  effort  here,  however  it  may  be  in  cake  making. 

Average  custards  are  made  with  three  to  six  eggs  to 
a  quart  of  milk ;  naturally  the  larger  number  makes  a 
firmer  custard,  but  the  other  is  quite  palatable.  Often 


Custards 


237 


Eggs 
ri.th  Starch 


58  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 

gelatine  or  corn  starch  is  used  to  assist  in  thickening 
milk  when  eggs  are  expensive,  but  these  combinations 
are  not  real  custards. 

There  is  a  long  list  of  puddings  where  a  custard 
or  egg  and  milk  are  combined  with  starchy  materials. 
In  such  cases  as  have  already  been  stated,  it  is  wise  to 
have  the  starch,  whether  in  the  form  of  rice,  tapioca, 
sagos  or  corn  starch,  cooked  in  the  milk  before  the 


Dropped 
Egg 


POACHED   EGGS    ON   I- ISH   BALLS. 


egg  is  added.  Bread  or  cracker  crumbs  may  be  com- 
bined directly  with  the  milk,  for  then  the  starch  has  al- 
ready been  cooked. 

A  single  dropped  egg  may  show  that  water  need  not 
boil  in  order  to  cook  an  egg.  Even  if  a  thermometer  is 
not  available,  it  can  be  seen  that  the  white  of  the 
egg  instantly  changes  in  appearance  when  it  comes  in 
contact  witfy  water  far  below  the  boiling  point.  A  muf- 
fin ring  placed  in  the  water  assists  in  keeping  the  egg 


238 


EGGS. 


59 


in  good  shape.  A  little  salt  and  lemon  juice  or  vinegar 
in  the  water  makes  the  egg  harden  quickly  on  the  out- 
side instead  of  mingling  with  the  water. 

Since  we  reckon  the  cost  of  other  foods  by  the 
pound,  for  easy  comparison  we  must  estimate  the  value 
of  eggs  on  the  same  basis.  It  will  be  found  that  the 
average  hen's  egg  weighs  about  two  ounces,  and  that 
eight  good  sized  eggs  in  their  shells,  or  nine  or  ten 
shelled  eggs,  weigh  one  pound.  The  fuel  required, 
the  labor  of  preparation,  and  the  waste  are  much  less 
with  eggs  than  for  most  other  foods. 

Some  experiments  recorded  in  "Eggs  and  Their 
Uses  as  Food"  (Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  128,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agl.),  show  that  it  cost  more  than  twice  as 
much  to  serve  and  satisfy  at  breakfast  a  family  of  over 
one  hundred  women  in  a  college  boarding  hall  with 
mutton  chops  or  beefsteak  at  less  than  2oc.  per  pound, 
than  with  eggs  at  25c.  a  dozen. 

Commercially,  there  are  many  grades  of  eggs,  de- 
pendent upon  their  age.  Cold  storage  has  done  away 
with  most  other  methods  of  preserving  eggs.  Anything 
that  will  exclude  air,  without  bringing  ill  flavor  to  the 
egg,  will  aid  in  preserving  it.  Eggs  are  available  al- 
most everywhere  at  all  seasons  and  even  at  their  high- 
est prices,  are  not  more  expensive  than  the  choicer 
cuts  of  meat. 

An  inferior  egg  injures  all  other  materials  with 
which  it  is  combined,  therefore  it  is  never  economy  to 
buy  poor  eggs.  When  eggs  are  high  do  without  them, 


Value 


Preserving 


239 


6o 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 


Variety 


Combinations 

to  Reduce 

Cost 


making  dishes  which  require  few,  if  any;  then  when 
they  are  again  plenty  they  will  be  all  the  more  appetiz- 
ing. With  proper  conditions  for  keeping  eggs,  it  may 
be  economy  for  some  housekeepers  to  buy  a  large  quan- 
tity in  the  fall  and  pack  them  carefully  in  an  upright 
position,  but  many  find  it  better  to  give  the  grocer 
a  few  cents  more  than  to  take  the  time  and  rfsk  of 
loss. 

COMBINATION  OF  EGGS  WITH  OTHER  FOODS. 

Any  fundamental  food,  like  the  egg,  must  be  served 
in  a  variety  of  ways  or  we  tire  of  them.  Foods  having 
short  seasons  should  be  prepared  in  the  simplest 
fashion. 

The  nutritive  value  of  the  food  is  not  materially 
changed  by  a  variation  in  the  method  of  cooking,  pro- 
vided no  additions  are  made  to  it.  It  may  appeal  more 
to  the  palate  in  one  form  than  another,  and  the  time 
of  digestion  may  vary,  though  in  the  end  as  much  may 
be  absorbed  in  the  one  case  as  in  the  other. 

To  illustrate  this  point,  let  us  take  two  eggs  costing 
at  average  prices  two  cents  each,  or  four  cents. 
.  Whether  boiled  in  the  shell  or  dropped  from  the  shell 
into  boiling  water,  their  food  value  would  be  practi- 
cally the  same ;  when  scrambled  or  made  into  an 
omelet  there  is  a  slight  addition  of  nutritive  material. 

But  the  rigid  economist  says  that  eggs  at  two  cents 
apiece  are  too  expensive  for  the  family  of  limited 
means.  Then  comes  in  the  art  of  cooking  to  show  how 
the  eggs  may  be  combined  with  less  costly  food  ma- 


240 


61 


terials  to  make  several  palatable  dishes  which  may 
take  the  place  of  meats  and  yet  require  but  little  more 
labor  in  preparation. 

First,  the  two  eggs  may  be  combined  with  one  cup  of 
white  sauce ;  this  may  be  served  with  the  omelet,  or 
blended  with  the  scrambled  egg,  or  made  into  a  souffle, 
or  served  with  hard  boiled  eggs  chopped  or  sliced. 

The  identical  quantities  might  be  used  in  each  case. 
By  such  combination  the  cost  of  the  dish  is  doubled,  but 
it  will  go  at  least  twice  as  far  and  it£  fuel  value  is  more 
than  trebled.  Or,  instead  of  the  sauce,  we  may  use 
one  cup  of  milk  thickened  with  white  bread  crumbs  and 
well  salted  and  omit  the  butter  or  use  less.  This  will 
reduce  both  cost  and  fuel  value. 

The  foundation  may  be  again  extended  and  varied. 
To  the  two  eggs  and  cup  of  white  sauce  may  be  added 
two  ounces  of  grated  cheese  or  two  ounces  of  chopped 
ham.  If  the  ham  is  of  average  fatness,  the  fuel  value 
of  the  cheese  and  ham  will  be  about  the  same.  The 
ham  might  be  more  expensive  than  the  cheese  were 
it  not  that  this  is  a  way  to  turn  to  good  account  the 
smaller  bits  of  meat.  By  this  addition  the  dish,  at  two 
and  a  half  times  the  cost  of  the  eggs,  becomes  about 
five  times  as  efficient  in  fuel  value. 

This  combination  may  be  served  in  many  forms, — 
the  cheese  may  be  warmed  in  the  sauce  and  poured 
over  the  eggs  hard  boiled,  poached  or  made  into  an 
omelet,  and  the  ham  might  be  used  in  the  same  way. 

After  mixing  sauce,  cheese,  and  yolks  of  raw  eggs, 


With 

White 

Sauce 


With 
Cheese 
or  Ham 


Serving 


241 


62  PRINCIPLES  OP  COOKERY. 

the  stiff  whites  of  the  egg  may  be  folded  in  and  the 
mixture  baked  in  one  dish  or  several  little  ones. 

All  such  combinations  are  naturally  eaten  with  some 
form  of  bread,  and  here  again  the  whole  cost  is  di- 
minished with  an  increase  of  fuel  value. 

A  summary  of  these  possible  combinations  may  be 
clearer  in  tabular  form,  as  follows : 

Weight.      Cost.       Cal. 

2   eggs    4oz.        40.  •       161 

White  Sauce: 

i  C.  milk 8  oz.        2c.         162 

Butter i  oz.        2c.        217 

Flour    „. . .  ]/2  oz.  51 

Cheese    2  oz.        2c.        246 

Ham 2  oz.        2c.        207 

It  would  be  interesting  to  trace  the  history  of  egg 
cooking  and  find  who  first  discovered  that  eggs  cooked 
in  milk,  sweetened  and  flavored,  made  the  palatable 
compound  we  know  as  custard ;  or  who  first  discovered 
the  delicious  sponge  cake  or  "diet  bread,"  as  our  fore- 
mothers  called  it. 

All  our  modern  recipes  for  sponge  cake,  angel  cake, 
Cake  lady-fingers,  and  sponge  drops,  are  but  slight  varia- 
tions from  the  recipes  to  be  found  in  old  cook  books, 
which  call  for  the  weight  of  the  eggs  in  sugar  and  half 
the  weight  of  the  eggs  in  flour. 

The  tendency  of  the  artistic  cook  is  to  separate  the 
two  parts  of  the  egg,  using  the  yolk  to  produce  cer- 
tain effects  and  the  white  for  others. 

The  proportions  are  about  the  same  in  the  angel  cake 


242 


EGGS, 


63 


as  in  the  sponge  cake,  but  the  egg  whites  only  are 
used.  The  egg  yolks,  left  from  such  cakes,  are  more 
desirable  than  the  whole  egg  for  many  custards  and 
sauces,  producing  a  richer  and  more  creamy  effect, 
since  the  yolk  of  egg  contains  considerable  oil. 

Eggs  in  doughs  may  better  be  studied  here  with 
other  qualities  of  eggs  rather  than  later  with  doughs. 

Under  this  head  may  be  included  noodles,  pop- 
overs,  Yorkshire  pudding,  cream  puffs,  eclairs,  tim- 


bale  ca.ses,  fritters  of  many  varieties,  as  well  as  sponge 
and  angel  cakes  and  macaroons. 

From  a  study  of  these  distinctly  egg  doughs  we  may 
see  why  eggs  are  added  to  muffins,  puddings,  etc. 

These  may  be  divided  into  three  classes :  ( I )  When 
the  egg  is  used  merely  to  stick  flour  together,  such  as 
noodles  and  timbale  cases..  (2)  When  the  cake  re- 
sulting is  to  be  hollow  like  popovers  and  puffs,  then 
the  egg  is  beaten  with  the  other  ingredients.  (3) 
Where  a  spongy  texture  is  desired,  the  eggs  are  sep- 
arated and  beaten  separately. 

For  such  mixtures  as  the  first  class  lightness  is  not 
essential,  is  really  undesirable;  hence,  the  eggs  are 


Eggs  in 
Doughs 


64 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY, 


r<  oodles 


Timbales 


beaten  only  enough  to  blend  yolk  and  white,  and  not 
to  mix  air  with  them.  In  noodles,  which  are  a  kind 
of  egg  macaroni,  the  egg  supplies  liquid  as  well  as  aids 
in  sticking  the  particles  of  flour  together.  After  a  stiff, 
smooth  dough  is  made,  it  is  rolled  much  thinner  than 
would  be  possible  if  it  did  not  contain  egg.  Then  it  is 


Pop  Overs — an  Example  Dough   Raised  by  the  Expansion  of  Air. 

cut  in  strips  or  fancy  shapes  and  may  be  cooked  at  once 
or  dried  and  used  like  macaroni. 

The  timbale  cases  are  made  from  a  thin  batter,  in 
which,  to  egg  and  flour,  milk  and  .small  quantities 
of  fat  and  sugar  are  added,  and  the  whole  beaten  to- 
gether until  smooth.  If  the  batter  is  then  allowed  to 
stand  until  the  air  bubbles  escape,  the  timbale  cases 
will  have  fewer  holes  in  them.  The  hot  timbale  iron 
is  then  dipped  into  the  batter  and  the  coating  adher* 
ing  is  fried  until  crisp. 


244 


EGGS. 


The  second  class  should  be  hollow,  and  to  secure 
this  result  the  eggs  are  beaten  without  separating 
yolk  and  white,  or  better  still,  are  dropped  in  with  the 
other  ingredients  and  all  beaten  together. 

Popovers  are  the  result  of  a  very  thin  batter,  usually 
one  cup  each  of  flour  and  milk,  one  egg,  and  a  little 
salt.  This  is  beaten  thoroughly  together  with  a  Dover 


SPONGE   CAKE. 


beater,  poured  quickly  into  greased  cups,  iron  or 
earthen,  and  baked  until  thoroughly  done.  Yorkshire 
pudding  is  a  similar  combination. 

Cream  puffs  have  a  cooked  foundation  of  water,  but- 
ter and  flour ;  to  this  when  cool  the  eggs  are  added  and 
beaten  into  it  one  by  one.  Because  of  the  scalding 
of  the  flour  this  is  a  stiff  mixture  and  will  keep  its 
shape  when  dropped  on  flat  pans,  and  will  puff  while 
baking.  The  same  mixture,  fried  in  deep  fat,  produces 
a  hollow  fritter  which  may  be  filled  like  a  cream  puff. 


Popover 


Creac? 
Puffy 


245 


66  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 

Spongy         For  tne  third  class  of  egg  doughs  and  for  meringues 

Mixtures     an(j  puffy  omelets,  the  whites  of  eggs  are  beaten  by 

themselves  and  mixed  with  special  care  into  the  other 

ingredients  that  none  of  the  air  which  has  bee^     ,.*- 

tangled  may  be  lost.     This  air  expands  when  •  '  .ted, 

"  producing  the  delicate  lightness  of  the  meringue,  or 

sponge,  or  angel  cake. 

Beating         The  use  of  a  whisk  on  a  platter  is  the  best  way  of 
Eggs     quickiy  converting  the  slippery  egg.  white  into  a  frothy, 
flaky  mass,  so  firm  and  dry  that  it  may  be  turned  up- 
side down  without  slipping  from  the  platter. 

Egg  beaters  are  not  absolutely  essential,  for  the  work 
may  be  done  with  a  fork  in  time.  The  whisks  are 
best  for  beating  whites  alone — those  with  cog  wheels 
for  the  whole  egg  or  for  beating  batters. 

When  yolk  and  white  are  mixed,  it  is  impossible  to 
beat  in  as  much  air  as  into  the  white  alone,  probably  be- 
cause of  the  oil  contained  in  the  yelk.  Even  a  very 
little  of  the  yolk  will  prevent  the  whites  from  becom- 
ing a  stiff  froth. 

Cooking  Popovers,  meringues,  and  sponge  cake,  like  other 
articles  containing  large  proportions  of  egg,  require 
long  cooking  at  moderate  heat.  When  taken  from  the 
oven  too  soon  they  shrivel  out  of  shape. 

It  is  not  wise  to  make  cheap  cakes  and  try  to  make 
baking  powder  take  the  place  of  eggs  in  making  the 
mass  light.  When  eggs  are  cheap,  make  good  cakes 
and  custards,  but  when  they  are  high  in  price,  de- 
pend upon  desserts  where  they  are  not  required. 


246 


FISH,  FOWL,  AND  FLESH. 

Two  important  animal  products,  milk  and  eggs,  have 
••.  4i,  studied,  and  we  come  now  to  a  consideration  of 
tht  sh  of  animals  as  food.  The  cooking  of  the  flesh 
in  any  way  is  a  comparatively  simple  matter  once  we 
have  mastered  a  few  fundamental  laws  which  are  prac- 
tically the  same  as  in  cooking  eggs. 

The  choice  of  different  sections -of  a  creature  for 
different  purposes  and  the  decision  as  to  best  ways  of 
cooking  whatever  cut  happens  to  be  available,  are  less 
simple. 

The  primitive  cook  applied  heat  to  his  fish,  fowl, 
or  section  of  meat  and  consumed  it  when  cooked.  The 
modern  marketmen  first  divide  and  clean,  then  the 
chef  seasons  and  applies  the  heat  in  different  ways  to 
the  various  portions.  One  part  is  naturally  tender  and 
ready  for  immediate  cooking,  another  will  be  better 
if  kept  a  week  or  a  month,  others  will  be  improved  by 
salting  or  smoking. 

Savages  have  fewer  kinds  of  food  and  simpler  meth- 
ods of  preparation  than  civilized  man.  Because  of 
greater  abundance  it  is  a  natural  tendency  in  civiliza- 
tion to  discard  as  refuse  certain  portions  formerly 
eaten.  On  the  other  hand,  business  competition  makes 
it  necessary  to  save  all  by-products  and  every  por- 
tion of  an  animal  is  used  for  some  purpose  and  brings 
•some  money  return,  even  though  small.  Were  it  not 
for  this,  our  animal  foods  would  be  higher  in  price 

67 


247 


68 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 


Comparative 

Composition 

of  Animal 

Food 


than  they  are.    As  it  is,  they  are  the  most  expensive 
part  of  the  daily  food. 

Meat  a  This  *s  Partty  due  to  the  fact  that  the  flesh  of  ani- 
Sep°oduct  ma^s  *s  a  secondary  product.  Animals  consume  grains 
and  require  additional  human  care,  and  thus  must 
cost  more  than  the  grains,  themselves,  alone.  More- 
over, it  has  been  learned  by  dietary  studies  th^t  average 
families  in  the  United  States  obtain  from  half  to 
two-thirds  of  the  protein  in  their  food  from  animal 
source,  and  the  cost  of  food  is  usually  proportionate 
to  the  demand. 

The  composition  of  all  animal  foods  is  similar. 
Milk  is  mainly  water,  but  contains  some  of  each  of 
the  food  principles.  Eggs  have  less  water  than  milk, 
and  no  carbohydrates,  but  furnish  larger  proportions 
of  fat  and  protein.  Fish  would  average  about  the 
same  proportion  of  protein  as  eggs,  but  rather  less 
fat.  Poultry  yields  more  protein  than  eggs,  but  about 
the  same  amount  of  fat.  The  flesh  of  the  larger  ani- 
mals will  average  about  two-thirds  water,  the  pro- 
tein and  fat  being  in  varying  proportions  according  to 
the  age  and  condition  of  the  animal. 

Without  regard  to  the  names  given  by  marketmen  of 
different  localities  to  the  cuts  of  meat,  we  may  learn 
the  location  of  the  choicest  pieces.  Cuts  which  offer 
tender  muscle  or  large  proportion  of  muscle  will  natu- 
rally command  the  higher  prices. 

In  any  of  these  animals  the  framework  of  bone  is 
practically  the  same.  The  larger  portion  of  bone  is 


Costs  of 
Meat 


248 


MEAT.  69 

in  the  forequarter.  This  is  one  reason  why  the  fore- 
quarters  are  cheaper  than  hindquarters  in  our  mar- 
kets. Consequently,  there  is  less  nutritive  value  per 
pound  and  what  there  is  is  less  accessible,  for  the  meat 
is  not  easily  carved  unless  boned  before  cooking. 

Meat  of  any  kind  should  have  little  odor  when  in      Judging 
good  condition.    It  should  be  firm  and  dry  rather  than      Meat 


LAMB    CHOPS    AND    KIDNEYS. 

moist,  and  should  be  well  marbled  with  fat. 

The  lower  part  of  the  legs  will  have  little  muscle  in 
proportion  to  the  bone,  and  there  will  be  tendons  hold- 
ing the  muscle  to  the  bone. 

Muscles   getting  little   motion   or   exercise  will   be      Tou  hne 
tender,  while   those  which  are  active  will  be  tough, 
though  juicy.     The  neck  and  legs,  therefore,  will  be 
suitable  for  broths  but  not  desirable  for  roasts. 

A  general  rule  is  this:  the  market  value  of  meat 
increases  backward  from  the  head,  but  decreases  down- 


249 


;o  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 

ward  toward  the  legs.  This  brings  the  choicest  cuts 
in  the  back  upper  part  of  the  creature  and  includes 
the  rump  and  loin. 

The  muscle  of  good  beef  is  dark  red  when  first, 
cut  and  grows  brighter  when  exposed  to  the  air  for  a 
short  time.  The  fat  is  yellowish  white. 

Mutton  Mutton  and  lamb  have  a  hard  white  fat.  The  flesh 
and  Lamb  of  mutton  is  a  duller  red  than  beef.  The  lamb  is 
pinkish  in  tinge.  The  bones  of  veal  and  lamb  are 
smaller  than  those  of  beef  and  mutton.  Veal  and  fresh 
lean  pork  are  somewhat  the  same  shade  of  dull  pink, 
but  the  pork  has  more  fat  mixed  with  it. 

Meat  from  young  animals  is  tender  but  not  so  nu- 
tritious, and  does  not  keep  so  well  as  that  from  older 
ones. 

The  heart,  liver,  sweetbread,  kidney,  tripe,  are  also 
used  as  food  and  the  same  general  laws  govern  the 
methods  of  cooking  them. 

The  chef  may  not  recognize  the  same  elements  in 
meat  that  the  chemist  does,  yet  his  choice  and  prepara- 
tion of  a  cut  of  meat  are  based  upon  its  composition. 
From  this  point  of  view,  meat  consists  of  three 
parts :  lean  muscle,  fat,  and  bone,  and  the  market  value 
of  any  cut  is  based  upon  its  relative  proportion  of 
these. 

Lean  meat  is  most  desired  and  tender  fibres  com- 
mand the  higher  prices.  Some  fat  is  utilized  with 
the  meat,  but  a  large  part  goes  to  the  manufacture  of 
artificial  butter,  lard,  and  soap.  Much  of  the  bone  is 


250 


Some  Fat 
Needed 


MEAT.  71 

refuse,  but  some  of  its  substance  may  be  extracted  by 
right  treatment. 

The  lean  portion  of  meats  is  about  one-fifth  or  twenty 
per  cent,  protein  about,  five  times  as  much  as  in  an 
equal  weight  of  milk. 

The  muscle  or  the  lean  meat  may  be  freed  from  Preparation 
skin,  gristle,  bone,  and  fat,  wholly  or  in  part  before 
cookingo  It  is  easier  to  serve  when  this  is  done,  and 
there  is  no  waste  at  the  table,  but  there  may  be  loss 
of  flavor.  Raw  meat  may  be  digested  readily,  but  we 
cook  it  to  make  it  more  attractive  in  appearance  and- 
more  appetizing  in  flavor. 

Some  fat  is  required  to  keep  the  meat  from  drying 
during  the  cooking  process.  Often  the  muscle  is  so 
closely  associated  with  bone,  tendon,  and  gristle,  that 
to  remove  them  would  cause  serious  loss  of  juice.  In 
any  case,  when  the  tougher  portions  are  removed  they 
should  be  used  for  stock  and  their  flavor  returned  to 
the  muscle  as  a  sauce  or  used  for  soup  or  other  good 
purpose. 

Tender  muscles  may  be  cooked  quickly — steaks  and 
roasts — and  should  be  exposed  to  intense  heat  at  first. 

Tougher  portipns  may  be  made  more  palatable  by 
pounding  to  separate  the  connective  tissue,  but  this  is 
often  accompanied  by  loss  of  juice,  or  they  may  be 
put  through  the  meat  chopper  or  cooked  slowly  for  a 
long  time  in  a  gravy,  or  both. 

By  browning  tough  meat  first  we  give  it  a  good     Browning 
flavor  and  sear  the  surface  so  that  more  of -the  juice  will 


Tough 
Meat 


251 


Braising 


Salt  Meat 


Fatness 


72  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 

be  retained  than  if  raw  meat  were  used.  Some  scraps  of 
fat  may  be  browned,  an  onion  sliced  and  fried  in  the 
fat,  an  equal  measure  of  flour  added,  and  when  it  is 
mixed  smoothly  with  the  fat,  water  is  put  in,  in  the 
same  proportions  as  for  white  sauce.  The  meat  is  put 
in  the  gravy  and  left  covered  on  the  back  of  the  stove 
to  cook  slowly,  later  vegetables  are  added. 

Braised  meat  and  pot  roasts  are  similar  in  effect,  but 
large  pieces  of  meat  are  used  and  more  time  is  re- 
quired. All  the  trimmings,  except  the  fat,  are  put  with 
the  bones,  covered  with  cold  water  and  the  kettle  is 
set  on  the  stove  to  heat  slowly. 

Salt  meats  should  be  cooked  slowly  in  plenty  of 
water  until  tender.  When  the  meat  is  very  salt,  it 
should  be  put  on  in  cold  instead  of  boiling  water. 

Wild  animals  usually  are  less  fat  than  those  that 
have  been  raised  for  food.  Excessive  fat  may  mean 
disease.  Young  animals  have  but  little  fat  compared 
with  older  ones.  Half  the  weight  of  a  pig  may  be 
fat  and  a  fourth  of  a  fat  sheep  or  ox.  Some  portions 
of  a  creature  will  contain  much  more  fat  than  others. 
Layers  of  fat  occur  around  the  inner  organs  of  ani- 
mals. Some  fish  have  fat  or  oil  in  the  liver  and  little 
or  none  elsewhere.  Fat  mingled  with  the  lean  tissues  is 
partly  visible,  partly  detected  only  by  chemical  meth- 
ods. 

To  a  certain  extent  fat  takes  the  place  of  water  in 
the  tissues,  In  fat  meat  the  purchaser  gets  the  same 
amount  of  protein  but  buys  fat  instead  of  water* 


MEAT.  K 

The  surplus  fat  purchased  with  meats  should  be 
turned  to  good  account  by  clarifying  it  for  shortening 
or  frying.  It  should  be  freed  from  the  protein  mat- 
ter as  far  as  possible  by-  trimming  and  soaking  in  cold 
salted  water.  The  water  should  be  changed  often,  and 
the  fat,  after  being  cut  in  small  pieces,  may  soak  from 
twelve  to  twenty-four  hours.  Then  it  is  drained  and 


Saving, 
the  Fa^ 


SAUSAGE  AND  FRIED  APPLES. 


heated  slowly  to  separate  the  clear  fat  from  the  heavy, 
honeycomb-like  tissues  which  contain  it.  At  the  end 
of  several  hours  the  fat  will  have  melted  and  may  be 
strained  from  the  crisp  brown  tissues.  If  raised  to 
too  high  a  temperature  the  fat  is  less  wholesome  and 
well  flavoredo 

In  the  average  household,  trimmings  of  beef,  pork, 
veal,  lamb,  and  poultry,  may  be  prepared  together  for 


253 


74 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 


Frying  in 
Deep  Fat 


Testing 
Temperature 


Bones 


fry  fat,  and  where  much  meat  is  used  will  keep  a  sup- 
ply in  the  frying  kettle. 

Frying  in  deep  fat  is  a  satisfactory  method  of  st 
curing  a  crisp,  brown  crust.    When  the  process  is  prop- 
erly conducted  very  little  fat  is  absorbed  by  the  food. 

The  temperature  of  fat  suitable  for  cooking  is  much 
higher  than  that  of  boiling  water  and  ranges  from 
300°  to  400°  F,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  article 
to  be  cooked.  For  doughs  which  should  rise,  and  fish 
which  must  be  cooked  through,  a  lower  temperature 
and  longer  time  are  required  than  for  fishballs  or  cro- 
quettes, already  cooked  and  only  to  be  browned. 

If  many  pieces  of  cold  food  are  put  into  the  kettle 
of  fat  at  one  time,  the  temperature  will  be  lowered  so 
much  that  they  may  absorb  fat  and  even  fall  to  pieces. 

A  bit  of  bread  dropped  into  the  kettle  will  brown 
in  one  minute  if  the  fat  is  right  for  frying  doughs,  and 
in  less  time  if  it  is  ready  for  croquettes. 

Fat  by  itself  does  not  boil,  but  when  moist  food 
is  put  into  it  large  bubbles  of  steam  begin  to  form. 
At  first  the  foods  being  cold  and  heavy  sink  to  the 
bottom  of  the  kettle ;  as  they  warm  and  the  water  es- 
capes, they  rise  toward  the  top. 

As  soon  as  the  food  is  brown  it  should  be  removed 
from  the  fat  and  drained  on  soft  paper  before  serv- 
ing. 

The  bones  of  animals  yield  considerable  nutritive 
material  if  we  use  proper  methods  to  extract  it.  Mar- 


254 


MhA'l. 


75 


row  is  found  in  the  leg  bones,  but  they  have  not  so 
much  protein  matter  as  the  spongy  rib  bones.  When 
meat  is  boned  before  cooking,  bits  of  meat  cling  to 
the  bone.  By  soaking  in  cold  water,  then  cooking 
gently,  a  large  part  of  the  flavor  and  nutritive  part 
of  the  bone  is  dissolved  in  the  water.  Cartilage,  gristle 


MEAT  LOAF  IN  RICE. 

and  tendons  are  also  somewhat  soluble  when  exposed 
to  moisture  and*  heat.  The  smaller  the  pieces-  into 
which  bone  and  meat  are  divided  the  greater  the  sur- 
face exposed  to  the  dissolving  action  of  the  water.  The 
flavors  of  meat  which  are  drawn  into  the  water  are 
known  as  extractives  and  are  stimulating  rather  than 
nourishing. 


Extracting 
Nutriment 


255 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 


Soup 
Stock 


This  process  of  extraction  from  portions  unsuit- 
able to  eat  is  known  as  making  soup  stock.  Bouillon 
and  beef  tea  are  made  from  tough  lean  meat  with  little 


Names 
of  Soups 


FILLET  CUT  FROM    SIDE   OF  FISH. 

or  no  bone.  Consomme  is  made  from  meat  and  poul- 
try together.  Anything  that  would  give  a  strong 
flavor  must  be  removed.  The  skin  of  lamb  or  beef 
should  be  thrown  away. 

The  flavoring  of  the  soup  or  the  garnish  served  in  it 
gives  its  distinctive  name.  All  meat,  poultry,  and 
fish  soups  have  as  their  basis  a  stock  made  from  the 
portions  undesirable  to  use  in  any  other  way. 

Yet  stock  contains  but  a  small  proportion  of  the 
nutriment  of  the  meat,  and  fibre  of  the  meat  from 
which  stock  has  been  made  may  be  used  for  hashes, 
with  herbs,  etc.,  to  give  flavor. 


256 


FISH,  FOWL  AND  FLESH. 


77 


FISH. 

Fresh  fish  have  full  lifelike  eyes,  red  gills,  silvery, 
not  slimy  skin  and  scales,  firm  tail,  not  flabby  and 
drooping,  and  firm  flesh.  Plump  short  fish  are  better 
than  long  thin  ones  of  the  same  variety.  The  time  of 
their  transfer  from  the  water  to  the  table  should  be  as 
short  as  possible.  While  fish  "as  a  whole  is  not  so  nu- 
tritious as  meat,  it  may  often  take  the  place  of  meat 
on  our  tables.  It  is  the  province  of  the  cook  to  sup- 
plement the  fish  with  such  sauces  as  will  supply  both 
flavor  and  nutriment. 

In  general,  the  methods  of  cooking  fish  are  the  same 
as  those  followed  in  cooking  meats.  The  flesh  should 
be  thoroughly  cooked,  but  not  overdone.  Oily  fish,  like 


For  Fish  Stock, 


PREPARATION   OF   FISH. 


Ready  to  Fry. 


salmon  and  mackerel,  are  best  broiled.  Almost  any 
fish  may  be  baked  whole  or  in  fillets.  Boiling  is  an 
extravagant  method  of  cooking  unless  the  water  is 
used  for  a  soup  or  a  sauce.  Steaming  is  better  than 


257 


78  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 

boiling,  as  more  of  the  flavor  is  retained  in  the  fish. 
Frying  in  salt  pork  fat  is  a  desirable  way  to  cook  fish 
lacking  flavor  or  fat,  but  for  uniformity  in  cooking  the 
kettle  of  deep  fat  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  thin  layer 
in  a  shallow  pan. 

If  a  fish  lacking  in  fat  is  brushed  over  with  oil  or 
melted  butter  and  broiled  under  gas,  the  result  gives  the 
best  effects  of  frying  without  the  disagreeable  odors. 


Sauces 
with  Fish 


FISH   STUFFED   AND  TRUSSED    FOR   BAKING. 

Fish  stock  may  be  kept  for  several  days  if  convenient, 
or  it  may  be  used  as*  the  basis  of  a  sauce  to  serve  with 
the  fillets  of  the  flesh. 

Since  so  many  varieties  of  fish  lack  fat,  rich  sauces 
are  generally  considered  a  necessary  accompaniment. 
The  composition  of  the  fish  and  the  way  in  which  it  is 
cooked  should  decide  the  kind  of  sauce  to  be  served 
with  it.  Acids  like  lemon  juice,  pickles,  and  tomato 
are  often  agreeable  additions  to  a  fish  sauce. 


258 


FISH,  FOWL  AND  FLESH.  79 

POULTRY 

Young  birds  are  to  be  chosen  for  broiling  and  other  judging 
quick  cooking,  but  full  grown  fowls  are  more  nutritious 
for  broths  and  stews.  A  fowl  is  usually  fatter  than  a 
chicken,  the  skin  is  tougher,  and  the  bones — especially 
the  tip  of  the  breast  bone — are  harder.  In  the  skin  of 
the  young  bird  there  are  usually  pinfeathers,  the  feet 
are  smoother,  and  the  muscles  or  flesh  are  less  well 
developed  than  in  the  fowl. 

To  prepare  poultry,  pick  out, pinfeathers,  singe  and      Preparin 
rub  off  the  hairs  and  wipe  clean.     Cut  through  the      Frk»sse< 
loose  skin  on  the  back,  pull  away  from  the-  neck,  take 
out  the  crop  and  windpipe  in  front,  cut  off  the  neck. 

Cut  through  the  skin  on  the  legs  about  an  inch 
below  the  joint,  break  the  bone,  twist  the  leg  and 
pull  out  the  tendons  one  by  one.  Take  off  the  wings 
and  cut  through  the  loose  skin  on  the  sides  and  sep- 
arate the  leg  and  thigh  joints. 

From  backbone  to  tip  of  breastbone  cut  through  thin 
muscles  on  either  side.  This  exposes  the  interior  or- 
gans1 so  that  it  is  easy  to  learn  their  relative  positions. 
Then  one  knows  how  to  proceed  when  preparing  a 
bird  to  roast  when  the  opening  is  small. 

Loosen  the  membranes  which  attach  these  organs 
to  the  body,  following  the  breastbone  with  the  fingers 
until  the  point  of  the  heart  is  felt.  Then  remove  heart, 
liver,  and  gizzard  together.  The  gallbag  is  protected 
by  the  liver,  so  there  is  little  danger  of  breaking  it  if 


259 


260 


POULTRY.  81 

they  are  not  separated.    The  intestines  should  be  re-     • 
moved  when  the  fowls  are  dressed  for  market. 

Next  detach  the  lungs  from  the  backbone  near  the 
wings,  and  the  kidneys,  which  are  lower  down  in  the 
back.  These  are  not  used. 

Separate  trie  gallbag  from  the  liver  without  break- 
ing, and  cut  away  any  portions  of  the  liver  which  are 
tinged  with  green.  Cut  across  the  larger  end  of  the 
heart  and  slip  it  out  of  the  membrane  enclosing  it. 
Cut  through  the  gizard  on  the  wide  side  and  take  out 
the  inner  portion  without  breaking,  if  possible. 

Learn  the  order  of  removal  of  these  portions  from      order  of 
the  body,   and  then  nothing  will   be  forgotten   when      »emovai 
preparing  a  bird  for  any  purpose, — the  crop  and  wind- 
pipe from  the  neck. 

The  heart,  liver,  and  gizzard,  together,  from  an  open- 
ing near  the  tail. 

The  lungs  and  kidneys  from  the  hollows  in  the  back-  . 
bone. 

The  oil  bag  on  the  upper  part  of  the  tail. 

The  backbone  can  now  be^  divided  near  the  middle, 
and  by  slipping  a  knife  under  the  sharp  end  of  the 
shoulder  blade  and  then  cutting  through  the  ribs  from 
the  point  where  the  wings  come  off,  the  upper  part 
of  the  back  is  separated  from  the  breast. 

If  desired,  the  fillets  of  white  flesh  can  be  separated 
from  the  breastbone  and  wishbone  by  running  the 
knife  Close  to  tlu- hones, 


82 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY, 


Never  soak  a  fowl  in  water,  as  is  often  the  practice. 
If  any  parts  need  washing  rinse  them  off  quickly  one 
by  one. 

The  breastbone,  upper  part  of  back  and  neck,  and 
sharp  ends  of  wings  should  be  put  in  cold  water  and 


Putin 
Boiling 
Water 


CHICKEN   STUFFED   AND  TRUSSED   FOR   ROASTING. 

heated  slowly ;  thus  more  flavor  is  extracted  from  these 
portions  which  have  but  little  meat. 

When  the  water  is  boiling  hot  the  otHer  sections  are 
put  in  and  the  hot  water  coagulates  the  juices  on  the 
outside  and  thus  more  flavor  is  retained.  To  accom- 
plish the  same  end,  the  joints  are  often  browned  in  hot 
fat  and  then  are  stewed  afterward, 


262 


VEGETABLES  AND 

Like  the  foods  already  studied,  vegetables  are  mainly 
water,  but  all  the  five  food  principles  may  be  ob- 
tained from  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Here  we  secure 
our  supplies  of  starch  and  sugar,  or  the  carbohydrates, 
but  the  proportions  of  proteid  and  fat  are,  as  a  whole, 
smaller  than  in  the  animal  foods.  From  fruits,  vege- 
tables, and  grains  we  obtain  mineral  substances  valu- 
able for  making  bones  and  teeth  and  keeping  the  whole 
system  in  good  condition. 

The  woody  fibre  or  cellulose,  abundant  in  vegetable      Softening 
structures,  is  the   great  obstacle   to   be   overcome   by      cellulose 
cooking.     Plants    growing    rapidly     with     plenty     of 
water  and  sunshine  usually  have  less  of  this  fibre,  and 
it  is  the  aim  of  the  gardener  to  eliminate  it  as  far  as 
possible.     By  improved   methods   of    cultivation    the 
agriculturist  has  removed  the  acrid  flavors  of  the  nat- 
ural  vegetables   and  has   reduced  the   proportion   of 
woody  fibre. 

The  cell  walls  cannot  be  separated  wholly  from  the 
nutritive  substances  they  contain,  and  unless  softened 
by  cooking  may  irritate  the  alimentary  canal  so  that 
the  whole  is  hurried  through  before  digestion  is  com- 
•t)leted.  Cellulose,  though  of  little  food  value,  may  aid 
digestion  by  providing  the  necessary  bulk  for  its  me- 
chanical processes. 

Experiment.  To  get  a  clear  idea  of  the  structure 
and  composition  of  vegetables,  grate  a  portion  of  a 

83 


263 


84  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 

potato  or  turnip.  Let  the  pulp  fall  from  the  grater 
into  a  strainer  placed  over  a  glass  and  press  out  all 
the  watery  juice  possible.  Some  of  the  starch  of  the 
potato  will  settle  from  the  juice,  and  more  may  be 
washed  out  of  the  mass  remaining  in  the  strainer.  The 
presence  of  sugar  in  the  juice  of  a  carrot  may  be  recog- 
nized by  tasting  it  after  evaporation. 

By  examination  of  the  woody  fiber  left  in 'the  strain- 
er we  see  how  closely  it  is  connected  with  the  starch 
and  sugar,  how  impossible  it  would  be  to  separate 
it,  and  the  necessity  for  softening  it  that  we  may  be 
able  to  digest  the  nutrients. 

We  discard  portions  of  vegetable  foods,  the  pods, 
husks,  cobs,  etc.,  because  of  our  inability  to  cook  them 
so  they  can  be  digested. 

Chopping  and  straining  aid  the  cook  in  dividing  the 
'  cellulose  so  that  the  particles  are  less  irritating  and 
the  nutrients  are  more  accessible. 

Parts  of  It  is  interesting  to  note  the  different  parts  of  plants 
Pla?orFood  which  are  used  for  food — the  roots,  tubers  or  bulbs, 
stems,  leaves,  fruits,  and  seeds.  The  last  are  used 
mainly  in  the  dry  form,  and  absorb  much  water  in 
preparation.  This  must  be  remembered  when  study* 
ing  analyses  of  dried  legumes  and  cereals. 

The  botanical  grouping  of  plants  is  helpful.  Once 
we  have  learned  how  to  prepare  and  cook  one  member 
of  a  plant  family  we  have  something  to  guide  us  with 
its  relatives.  Among  the  principal  classes  to'  study  in 


264 


VEGETABLES.  85 

this  way  are  the  pulses,  the  grains,  and  the  cabbage 
family. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  each  vegetable  offered  by 
the  seedsmen.  Moreover,  any  vegetable  differs  ma- 
terially in  different  years  and  at  different  seasons-  of 
the  year. 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  cook  a  convenient  classi- 
fication of  vegetables  may  be  made  according  to  the 
general  preparation,  the  time,  and  the  amount  of 
water  required  for  cooking  them. 

Dried  vegetables  must  have  abundant  water  sup- 
plied and  must  be  allowed  time  to  soak,  thus  absorb- 
ing an  amount  of  water  similar  to  that  lost  in  the  dry- 
ing process.  There  is  little  difference  aside  from  the 
fat  added  in  cooking,  in  the  analysis  of  the  dry  bean 
which  has  been  soaked  and  baked,  and  that  of  the 
green  shelled  bean.  Sometimes  we  try  to  hasten  this 
process  of  absorption  by  heat,  but  the  best  results 
are  attained  when  dried  fruits  or  vegetables  are  soaked 
until  at  least  double  in  size  before  cooking. 

Old  or  strongly  flavored  vegetables,  such  as  pota- 
toes, turnips,  and  onions,  will  be  improved  by  the  re- 
moval of  the  skin  and  any  imperfections  before  cook- 
ing, and  by  soaking  in  cold  water  for  an  hour  or  two. 
Inferior  onions  may  be  scalded  in  soda  water  before 
cooking,  and  by  changing  the  water  once  or  twice  dur- 
ing the  cooking  process  will  be  rendered  less  strong 
in  flavor.  It  is  wiser  to  make  the  vegetable  palatable 


Dried 
Vegetables 


Strongly 
Flavored 
Vegetables; 


265 


266 


VEGETABLES. 


87 


Vegetables 


Vegetables 


Pulses 


at  the  risk  of  some  loss  of  nutriment  than  to  retain 
everything  and  have  it  uneatable. 

Young  vegetables  in  summer  and  those  having  Young 
sugary  juices,  like  squash  and  beets,  should  be  cooked 
in  little  water  or  by  steaming  or  baking,  so  that  all 
their  sweetness  may  be  retained,  unless  the  water  is 
reserved  for  soup  or  used  in  a  sauce  for  the  vegetable 
itself. 

Slightly   wilted   vegetables   may    be    improved    by      wilted 
washing  and  soaking  or  by  wrapping  in  a  damp  cloth 
and  placing  in  the  refrigerator  or  by  hanging  in  a 
draft  of  air. 

The  pulses  or  leguminous  plants  include  the  bean, 
lentil,  pea,  and  peanut. 

In  the  bean  we  have  an  example  of  a  vegetable  which 
differs-  much  at  different  stages  of  growth.  We  may 
use  the  pods  before  the  seeds  they  contain  have 
reached  their  normal  size,  the  full  grown  seeds  may 
be  cooked  green,  or  dry  after  first  being  soaked. 

This  class  of  plants  is  of  great  value  where  people 
must  be  fed  at  small  expense.  They  are  staples  in 
in  China,  Japan,  Southern  Europe  and  Mexico,  are  in- 
valuable in  prisons,  charitable  institutions,  and  for  the 
pioneer  or  logger.  Because  they  lack  fat,  cream, 
butter,  or  pork  are  added  before  eating. 

Some  varieties  like  the  Japanese  soy  beans,  contain 
as  much  as  sixteen  per  cent  of  fat,  and  peanuts  are 
more  than  one-third,  or  about  forty  per  cent  fat. 


Fat 
Contents 


267 


Digestibility 


Pea* 


88  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 

Though  rich  in  nutrients  this  class  of  vegetables  ap- 
pears to  be  slow  of  digestion.  The  ease  and  complete- 
ness of  digestion  are  aided  by  thorough  cooking  and 
by  removing  the  skins,  grinding,  mashing,  or  strain- 
ing. Long,  gentle  cooking  develops  new  flavors  and 
removes  the  peculiar  granular  texture  present  in  beans 
and  peas  insufficiently  cooked,  even  after  straining. 


Black  Bean  Sou^  Garnished  with  Lemon  and  Parsley. 

The  main  object  in  cooking  beans,  like  all  vegeta- 
bles, is  to  soften  the  tough  fibres  of  the  pods  of  the 
string  beans  and  the  skins-  and  cellulose  of  the  dry 
ones. 

Split  peas  have  the  skins  removed  and  thus  are 
more  readily  digested.  The  skins  of  the  larger  beans 
may  be  rubbed  off  after  soaking  and  parboiling. 

Hard  water  retards  the  cooking  of  beans  and  a  bit 
of  soda  is  often  added  to  soften  the  water  and  loosen 


268 


VEGETABLES.  89 

the  skin — this  water  is  poured  off  when  the  beans  are 
partly  cooked. 

Few  people  use  the  variety  of  beans  they  might,  as      Beftng 
the  black   beans   for  soup,   the   limas  or   red   kidney 
for  stewed  beans,  the  pea  bean  and  yellow   eye   for 
baking"  and  the  French  flageolets  for  salads. 

Potatoes  are  generally  liked  because  of  their  lack      potatoe& 
of  pronounced  flavor,  and  for  the  same  reason,  may 
be  combined  with  many  other  foods. 

A  peck  of  potatoes  may  cost  from  fifteen  to  seventy- 
five  cents,  according  to  the  season  of  the  year,  and  the 
abundance  of  the  crop.  This  quantity  will  weigh  fif- 
teen pounds  and  will  average  from  fifty  to  sixty  po- 
tatoes. That  is,  one  pound  will  be  about  four  pota- 
toes of  medium  size,  and  will  cost  from  one  to  five 
cents. 

If  pared  before  cooking  and  all  bad  places  removed,      Logg  in 
average  potatoes  will  lose  from  twenty  to  twenty-five      Preparin 
per  cent,  or  one  of  the  four  potatoes  in  a  pound.   From 
selected  potatoes  the  government  experts  scraped  the 
skins,  removing  as  little  flesh  of  the  potato  as  possible. 
This  was  about  eleven  per  cent  of  the  weight.     In  po- 
tatoes as  usually  purchased,  the  green  ends,  decayed 
places,  and  the  potatoes  gashed  with  the  hoe  easily 
bring  the  total  loss  up  to  the  higher  percentage. 

It  may  be  a  profitable  loss  to  pare  old  and  inferior 
potatoes  before  cooking.  The  main  point  to  notice  in 
th^  cooking  of  the  potato  is  to  let  out  the  steatfy  pr  to 


Potatoes 
with  Meat 


Combinations 


Cooking 
Vegetables 


go  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 

pour  off  the  water  as  soon  as  the  fibre  and  starch  are 
softened. 

Because  the  potato  is  lacking  in  protein  and  fat,  the 
instinct  of  man  has  taught  him  to  eat  it  with  meat, 
since  it  gave  him  the  food  principles  the  meat  lacked, 
and  also  the  bulk  desirable  for  the  process  of  diges- 
tion. 

The  art  of  the  cook  has  devised  many  methods  of 
combining  butter,  oil,  milk  and  eggs  with  the  potato 
and  other  vegetables  to  supply  protein  and  fat.  The 
fried  potato  absorbs  fat  while  cooking ;  the  white  sauce 
of  creamed  potato  adds  both  fat  and  protein ;  a  potato 
soup  is  creamed  potato  with  more  milk ;  the  potato 
croquette  contains  egg  and  is  cooked  in  fat;  a  potato 
salad  has  oil  and  often  eggs. 

Such  additions,  though  increasing  the  cost  of  the 
food,  make  the  result  equivalent  to  vegetables  with  a 
moderate  allowance  of  meat.  Hence  vegetable  souf- 
flees,  or  croquettes,  may  be  served  when  the  meat  sup- 
ply is  limited. 

Almost  any  vegetable,  by  due  combination  with 
milk,  butter,  and  eggs  may  appear  as  soup,  fritters, 
croquettes,  soufflees,  or  salads.  For  these  complicated 
dishes,  it  is  essential  that  the  vegetable  first  shall  be 
perfectly  cooked  in  a  simple  fashion. 

The  methods  of  cookery  applied  to  vegetables  are 
similar  to  those  used  for  meat,  but  must  be  adapted 
to  the  composition  and  condition  of  the  individual 
specimen. 


270 


VEGETABLES.  91 

It  is  impossible  to  give  the  exact  time  for  'cooking 
any  variety  of  vegetable,  for  every  sample  will  differ. 
They  are  unpalatable  when  underdone  and  also  at  the 
other  extreme. 

There  is  usually  some  way  of  cooking  best  for  each 
vegetable,  but  if  one  kind  only  is  available  it  is  neces- 
sary to  serve  it  in  a  variety  of  ways.  This,  perhaps, 
explains  why  the  average  cook  book  gives  more  re- 
ceipes  for  the  potato  than  for  all  other  vegetables. 
Suitable  utensils  are  essential ;  vegetables  should  not 
be  cooked  in  iron  kettles  when  others  are  attainable; 
strainers,  mashers,  cutters,  ricers  and  presses  are  de- 
sirable. 

Strong  flavors  frequently  are  due  to  careless  prep-      Preparation 
aration.    Careful  trimming  and  thorough  washing  are 
essential.  .  Wilted  vegetables  are  improved,  as  has  been 
said,  by  soaking.     Salad  plants  need  especial  care  in 
washing  to  remove  parasites  and  insecticides. 

Any  portion  of  a  root  or  tuber  grown  above  ground 
becomes  green  and  strong  flavored  and  will  impart 
its  flavor  to  other  portions  with  which  it  may  be 
cooked.  A  decayed  bit,  or  the  scorching  where  the 
water  evaporates,  may  often  ruin  the  flavor  of  all. 

Young,  tender,  well  flavored  vegetables  should  be 
cooked  and  served  in  the  simplest  manner.  Inferior 
specimens,  like  tough  asparagus  or  celery  which  has 
lost  its  crispness,  by  boiling,  straining,  and  flavoring 
may  be  made  into  palatable  soup  when  they  would  be 
worthless  under  simple  treatment. 


271 


92  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 

vegetable  Vegetable  soups  are  of  two  types; — for  one,  the 
vegetables  are  cooked  till  tender,  cut  in  convenient 
bits  and  added  to  a  meat  stock.  For  the  other,  by  long 
cooking  in  water  a  single  vegetable  or  several  together' 
are  made  into  stock,  and  all  that  is  soft  enough  is 
rubbed  through  a  strainer  and  then  put  with  about  an 
equal  quantity,  according  to  the  strength  of  each,  of 


Preparation 

and 

Digestibility 


TOMATO    JELLY    WITH    BEETS. 

meat  stock  or  thin  white  sauce.  Thick,  pulpy  stock, 
like  that  from  peas,  beans,  or  potatoes,  needs  a  much 
thinner  sauce  than  would  celery  or  asparagus.  Un- 
less some  thickening  of  flour  is  used,  the  solider  por- 
tions will  settle,  leaving  the  soup  watery  on  top. 

In  one  of  the  publications  of  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  the  difference  in  digestibility 
of  the  same  food  cooked  in  various  ways  is  thus  stated : 
Whole  peas  soaked  and  cooked,  60  per  cent  digested; 


272 


VEGETABLES. 


93 


peas  cooked  a  long  time  and  strained,  82.5  per  cent ; 
pea  flour  cooked  with  milk,  butter  and  eggs,  92  per 
cent.  This  would  seem  to  prove  that  the  portion  of 
vegetable  food  considered  undigestible  can  be  reduced 
by  right  methods  of  cooking. 

Mashing  is  a  form  of  preparation  suited  to  squash, 
turnip,  parsnip,  and  potatoes.    A  seasoning  of  cream, 


INDIVIDUAL   APPLE  AND   CELERY   SALAD. 

or  butter,  and  salt  and  pepper,  is  usually  added.  Frit- 
ters and  croquettes  usually  have  mashed  vegetables- 
as  their  foundation,  or  small  bits  are  mixed  with  a 
thick  cr^.am  sauce. 

The  white  sauce  is  a  useful  additori  to  vegetables 
since  it  increases  their  nutritive  value  and  modifies 
strong  flavors.  Almost  any  cooked  vegetables  may 
thus  be  "creamed"  or  ''scalloped''  by  adding  both  the 
sauce  and  buttered  crumbs  and  baking.  This  is  an  ex- 
cellent way  to 'reheat  something  left  from  a  previous 
day. 


Mashing 


Creamed. 
Vegetables 


273 


94  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 

salads  Salad  is  a  term  belonging  especially  to  a  class  of 
uncooked  vegetables  and  in  all  cases  implies  a  vegeta- 
ble foundation  though  meats  or  fish  may  be  added. 
The  dressing  of  oil  and  vinegar  is  likewise  of  vegeta- 
ble origin. 

Here  is  another  of  our  attempts  to  bring  together 
the  five  food  principles  in  a  single  compound.  Water 
and  mineral  matter,  protein,  fat,  and  carbohydrate  are 
usually  blended  in  fairly  balanced  proportions.  This  is 
especially  true  of  salads  containing  eggs,  fish,  or  meat 
and  eaten  with  bread. 

GRAINS 

The  grains  or  cereals  are  the  main  dependence  of  the 
human  race  for  food  and  have  been  known  from  very 
early  times.  Some  member  of  this-  family  ef  plants 
is  found  in  every  section  of  the  world.  Rice,  wheat 
and  corn  are  most  largely  used  as  food,  while  oats,  rye, 
barley,  and  millet  follow  closely.  Animals  can  eat  these 
grains-  or  grasses  as  they  grow.  For  the  human  stom- 
ach the  coarser  portions  must  be  removed.  All  are 
similar  in  composition,  being  from  two-thirds  to  three- 
fourths  starch..  The  protein  ranges  from  7  to  15  per 
cent ;  fat  varies  from  i  to  10  per  cent ;  there  is  about 
i  per  cent  mineral  matter  and  10  to  12  per  cent  of 
water. 

Addition  Before  we  can  eat -and  digest  such  foods  a  large 
amount  of  water  must  be  combined  with  them.  Analy- 
ses have  shown  that  the  percentage  of  water  in  mushes, 


274 


GRAINS. 


95 


boiled  rice,  macaroni,  and  mashed  potato  is  nearly  the 
same. 

When  we  buy  cereals  in  paper  packages  we  pay  a 
little  more  for  them  than  when  they  are  bought  in 
bulk,  but  that  is  a  convenient,  clean  form  in  which  to 
keep  'them.  All  cereals  should  be  looked  over  before 
cooking  since  they  are  liable  to  attacks  from  insects. 


A  Cup  of  Corn  Meal,  and  the  Amount  of  Mush  It  Will  Make. 

To  make  mushes  start  with  the  desired  proportion  of 
liquid,  as  that  regulates  the  final  amount.  If  too  much 
water  is  used  it  can  seldom  be  drained  off,  as  it  might 
be  from  potatoes,  and  if  there  is  too  little  at  the  begin- 
ning it  is  practically  impossible  to  add  more  without 
making  the  mush  lumpy  and  pasty.  A  double  boiler, 
a  dish  set  in  a  steamer  or  a  covered  pail  in  a  kettle  of 
water,  are  the  utensils-  suitable  for  cooking  mushes. 


Musne, 


275 


96  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 

Cooking  The  coarser  the  grain,  the  more  water  required,  and 
cereals  ^g  ionger  w{\\  foe  t|ie  time  of  cooking.  Whole  grains 
are  improved  by  soaking  in  cold  water,  finely  ground 
preparations  must  be  mixed  with  cold  water  to  pre- 
vent the  formation  of  lumps.  All  others  should  be  put 
into  boiling  water.  Add  one  teaspoonful  of  salt  to  each 
quart  of  water.  Ordinary  oatmeal  and  granulated 
wheat  need  four  times  their  bulk  of  water,  cracked 
wheat  and  hominy  require  more.  The  rolled  grains  re- 
quire but  twice  their  bulk  of  water. 

The  cooking  at  first  should  be  rapid  and  the  upper 
part  of  the  double  boiler  should  be  placed  directly  on 
the  stove  for  five  minutes.  Then  put  it  over  the  other 
part,  cook  closely  covered  and  do  not  stir.  Such  foods 
are  not  injured  by  cooking  for  a  longer  time  than  the 
usual  directions  allow.  Coarse  hominy,  oatmeal,  or 
cracked  wheat  for  breakfast  should  be  cooked  several 
hours  the  previous1  day. 

Bice  Rice  may  be  boiled  in  a  quantity  of  water  which  is 
afterwards  drained  off,  but  this  is  wasteful  unless  some 
use  is  made  of  the  liquid. 

Macaroni  and  tapioca  are  not  strictly  cereals  but  con- 
form to  the  same  rules  of  cooking.  * 

Fried          Most  mushes  or  cooked  cereals  may  be  moulded  and 

Mush      serve(j  co\d  for  variety,  especially  in  warm  weather,  or 

be  packed  smoothly  in  oblong  pans  or  round  tin  boxes 

and  when  cold  sliced  and  fried  to  serve  with  syrups  or 

to  eat  with  meats. 


276 


GRAINS.  97 

A  portion  of  cooked  cereal  may  be  added  to  the 
liquid  used  in  mixing  muffins. 

Manufacturers  of  the  present  day  seem  to  be  trying 
to  see  in  how  many  different  forms  they  can  prepare 
the  few  standard  grains ;  they  are  left  whole,  are 
cracked,  are  crushed  into  flakes,  or  broken  into  gran- 
ules. As  the  result  of  this  variety  of  preparations-  and 


Cereals    shaped   in    Fancy    Moulds. 

the  generous  way  in  which  they  are  advertised  cereals 
are  used  more  and  more. 

During  the  last  few  years  they  have  been  cooked  in 
the  factories  and  prepared  in  forms  ready  for  immedi-  to  Eat  - 
ate  use.  These  forms-  have  many  merits  though  not 
all  that  are  claimed  for  them.  In  some  respects  they 
resemble  the  primitive  forms  of  unleavened  bread 
which  were  the  first  attempts  among  all  races,  the 
bannock,  the  hoe  cake,  the  tortilla* 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 

PART  II. 


Read  Carefully*  Place  your  name  and  address  on  the 
first  sheet  of  the  test.  Use  a  light  grade  of  paper  and  write 
on  one  side  of  the  sheet  only.  Do  not  copy  answers  from  the 
lesson  paper.  Use  your  own  words,  so  that  the  instructor 
may  know  that  you  understand  the  subject.  Read  the  les- 
son paper  a  number  of  times  before  attempting  to  answer 
the  questions. 

1.  In  what  ways  are  eggs  used  in  cookery? 

2.  What    substances    are    naturally    combined    with 

eggs  and  milk,  and  why? 

3.  What  is  the  fundamental  principle  in  cooking  arti- 

cles containing  a  large  proportion  of  egg? 

4.  Mention  five  dishes  where  egg  is  an  essential  in-- 

gredien-t,  and  five  others  where  it  may  be  used 
or  omitted.  '  Explain  why. 

5.  If  we  find  it  necessary  to  reduce  the  number  of 

eggs  in  a  cake  or  custard,  what  other  changes 
would  be  necessary? 

6.  Make  a  two  days'  menu  for  the  season  when  eggs 
/   are  at  the  lowest  price,  and  two  days'  menu 

for  the  season  when  they  are  expensive. 

7.  Which   forms   of  animal   food  are  the  most  ex- 

pensive and  why? 
Which  most  economical  and  why? 
So     What  portions  of  meat  are  best  for  soup  stock? 
What  should  be  discarded  ?  Describe  the  proc- 
ess of  making  soup.     Has  the  extracted  meat 
nutritive  value? 


278 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 

9.     Why  is  less  fat  absorbed  by  food  in  frying  in 
deep,  fat  than  in  sautering? 

10.  Give  methods  of  preparing  tough  meat  so  that  it 

is  palatable  and  nutritious. 

11.  Give  the  names  of  soups  which  have   (a)   little, 

(b)  much,  and  (c)  great  nutritive  value. 

12.  Why  do  we  add  stuffing  and  sauce  to  meats  and 

fish? 

13.  What  is  the  greatest  obstacle  to  be  overcome  in 

cooking  vegetables? 

14.  Give    methods    for   cooking    fish.     What    is    the 

proper  appearance  of  a  fresh  fish? 

15.  Plan  a  rotation  of  different  cereals  for  five  break- 

fasts in  winter  and  five  in  summer,  giving  rea- 
sons for  your  choice. 

1 6.  How  may  different  methods  of  preparing  a  veg- 

etable change  its  nutritive  value? 

17.  Describe  your  own  method  of  roasting  meat. 

1 8.  Give  the  names  of  the  vegetables  and  grains  used 

in  your  household.     Name  some  that  are  not 
used. 

19.  Is  there  any  question  you  wish  to  ask  or  subject 

you  would  like  to  discuss  relating  to  this  les- 
son? 

NOTE. — After  completing  the  test,  sign  your  full  name. 


279 


280 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY 

PART  III 

BREAD  AND  OTHER  DOUGHS 

Having  considered  the  whole  grains  we  must  learn 
how  to  use  them  when  ground  into  flour.  Although 
some  forma  of  bread  like  hoe  cake  and  tortillas  can  be 
made  from  cracked  grain  without  making  it  into  a 
flour,  most  people  depend  upon  flour  for  a  large  part  of 
their  daily  food. 

In  the  best  cook  books  the  ingredients  are  mentioned 
in  the  order  in  which  they  are  to  be  put  together  to 
secure  the  best  results  and  to  save  dishes ;  the  dry  cups 
and  spoons  are  used  for  the  flour  and  spices,  then  for 
the  shortening  and  liquids.  The  flour  is-  sifted  before 
measuring  and  sifted  again  to  mix  the  other  materials 
with  it. 

There  is  such  variation  in  flours  that  it  is  impossible 
to  give  exact  recipes  for  doughs,  but  it  is  easy  to  learn 
certain  general  proportions  and  experience  must  teach 
the  rest.  A  simple  formula  will  be  helpful  in  inter- 
preting old  recipes  in  which  the  exact  quantities  of 
flour  or  liquid  are  not  stated,  or  in  analyzing  recipes  to 
decide  whether  they  are  doughs  or  batters. 

One  measure  of  flour  to  one  of  liquid  makes  a  bat- 
ter. 

Two  measures  of  flour  to  one  of  liquid  gives  the 
usual  mufnn  mixture. 


Order  of 

Mixing 

Ingredients 


General 
Proportions 
in  Doughs 


281 


ioo  '  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 

Three  measures  of  flour  to  one  of  liquid  makes  a 
soft  dough,  but  one  that  may  be  kneaded. 

Four  measures  of  flour  to  one  of  liquid  is  the  usual 
proportion  for  doughs  to  be  rolled  thin  like  pastry  or 
cookies. 

Batters  and  muffins  can  be  stirred  with  a  .s-poon. 
Doughs  are  mixed  more  thoroughly  and  easily  with  a 
knife. 

Doughs  are  made  light  because  thus  they  are  more 
palatable  and  digestible. 

Making          The  almost  endless  variety  of  breads,  cake,  and  pas- 

Li!ht      try  may  be  classified  according,  to  the  means  used  to 

make  them  light.   Yeast  has  been  known. to  the  human 

race  from  a  .very  early  period,  the  others  are  much 

later  inventions. 

The  principal  means  are  these: 

The  mechanical  introduction  of  air,  as  by  beating 
or  by  the  addition  of  eggs  or  by  the  folding  of  pastry, 
or  in  the  aerated  or  Daughlish  bread. 

The  use  of  yeast,  the  growth  of  a  plant  filling  the 
dough  with  gas. 

The  chemical  combination  of  a  bi-carbonate  of  soda, 
with  some  acid  substance. 

Yeast  For  practical  use  in  every-day  life  it  is  essential 
to  remember  that  yeast  must  be  treated  like  other  forms 
of  plant  life  and  if  we  want  it  to  grow,  we  must  pro- 
vide the  right  kind  of  soil,  sufficient  moisture,  and  suit- 
able temperature.  After  its  work  is  done,  the  vitality 
of  the  yeast  must  be  destroyed  by  beat. 


282 


BREAD.  101 

It  may  be  desirable  to  know   how  to  manufacture      Yeast 
yeast  at  home  and  how  to  utilize  the  dried  yeast  cakes      Cakes 
in  emergencies,  though  compressed  yeast  cakes  are  now 
so  generally  used  that  it  is  hardly  neces-ary.     A  com- 
pressed yeast  cake  should  be  firm  and  solid,  not  soft, 
and  pasty ;  it  should  look  something  like  fresh  cheese, 
not  dark  colored  and  moldy.    When   only  part  of  a 


USEFUL  UTENSILS. 

yeast  cake  is  to  be  used,  it  should  be  cut  off  squarely 
and  the  remainder  wrapped  smoothly  in  tin  foil  again, 
when  it  may  be  kept  a  few  days  longer. 

BREAD 

The  essential  ingredients  in  bread  making  are  yeast, 
liquid,  and  flour;  the  proportions  may  be  varied  ac- 
cording to  conditons. 

Sugar  and  shortening  are  commonly  used,  but  if 
they  were  omitted  wholly  it  would  be  possible  to  have 
palatable,  nutritious  bread.  Salt  is  essential  to  suit  the 
taste  of  most  persons,  but  as  bread  is  usually  combined 


283 


102 


PRINCIPLES   OF  COOKERY. 


Causes  of 
Slow  Rising 


Kinds  of 
Flour 


wkh  salted  butter  its  absence  would  be  less  noticeable, 
and  bread  might  be  made  without  it.  Fermentation  is 
hindered  by  the  presence  of  salt,  a  small  amount  of 
sugar  hastens  the  process. 

Sugar  in  large  quantities  makes  the  dough  dense  and 
the  yeast  cannot  expand  so  readily.  An  excess-  of  short- 
ening has  much  the  same  effect.  If  a  dough  is  made 
stiff  with  flour  it  rises  more  slowly.  A  stiff  dough 
usually  has  small  air  cells  and  is  finer  grained  than 
when  the  dough  is  made  softer. 

The  liquid  may  be  milk,  whole  or  skimmed,  or  water, 
or  half  of  each.  The  milk  supplies  some  sugar,  fat  and 
nitrogenous  matter  and  produces  a  more  nourishing 
loaf  than  that  which  is  made  with  water.  Mashed  po- 
tatoes or  sifted  squash  or  cooked  cereals  are  some- 
times added  to  a  bread  dough  for  variety,  but  the  proc- 
ess is  not  changed  by  such  additions. 

The  best  bread  flour  is  made  from  spring  wheat  and 
pastry  flour  from  winter  wheat,  though  they  .may  be 
used  interchangeably  if  necessary.  The  spring  wheat 
flour  contains  more  gluten  and  less  starch,  so  that  less 
of  the  bread  flour  is  required  to  produce  a  dough  of  a 
given  consistency. 

The  entire  or  whole  wheat  flours  provide  more  bone 
making  materials  than  white  flour,  otherwise  there  is 
little  difference  in  the  nutritive  value  of  the  better 
grades  of  each. 

The  presence  of  gluten  makes  wheat  the  favorite 
flour  for  yeast  dough.  Gluten  is  adhesive  when  moist- 


284 


BREAD. 


103 


ened  and  thus  retains  the  gas-  bubbles  formed  by  the 
yeast  in  somewhat  the  same  way  that  egg-whites  hold 
air  when  they  are  beaten. 

Old  recipes  for  mixing  yeast  bread  usually  give  di- 
rections for  rubbing  shortening  into  the  flour  and  then 


"BREAD  CAKE"  OR  BUN  BREAD. 


adding  the  other  ingredients  with  liquid  to  make  a 
dough  that  can  be  kneaded.  The  best  authorities  to- 
day reverse  the  order,  thus  saving  time  and  energy  and 
producing  a  better  result. 

The  liquid  is  warmed  that  the  fat,  sugar,  and  salt 
may  readily  blend  with  the  other  ingredients  and  that 
the  dough  may  rise  more  rapidly.  When  it  is  below 
100  F,  or  cool  enough  to  avoid  cooking  the  yeast,  that 


Order  of 
Mixing 


Liquid 
Warmed 


285 


104  PRINCIPLES  OP  COOKERY 

is  added  and  well  mixed  through  the  liquid.  Sufficient 
flour  then  is  mixed  in  to  give  the  desired  consistency 
for  kneading. 

At  first  the  mixture  may  be  stirred  with  a  spoon,  but 
as  it  becomes  stiffer  a  knife  will  more  easily  serve  to 
produce  a  smooth  dough. 

Double  Thl*  process  of  mixing  bread  may  illustrate  the  bat- 
PBrtfa8d  ter  ancl  dro^  Batter  or  muffin  mixture  as  well  as  the 
dough.  To  make  a  sponge,  half  the  quantity  of  flour  to 
be  used  is-  mixed  with  the  liquid  and  this  allowed  to 
rise  till  foamy,  when  the  remainder  of  the  flour  is  add- 
ed. The  advantages  of  this  double  process  are  that  a 
trifle  less  flour  is  required  since  the  first  has  time  ^6 
expand  before  the  second  is-  put  in,  and  that  the  process 
is  somewhat  shortened  because  in  the  first  stasre  there 

o 

is-  less  resistance  for  the  yeast  to  overcome  and  the 
whole  sponge  becomes  full  of  yeast  for  the  second 
stage.. 

Sometimes  it  is  more  convenient  to  use  a  small  pof- 

Amount 

of  -ieast  tion  of  yeast  and  allow  the  dough  to  rise  for  a  longer 
time,  and  again  to  use  more  yeast  and  thus  do  the  work 
more  quickly.  Until  the  scientists  decide  which  is  real- 
ly the  better  method,  the  housekeeper  will  find  it  de- 
sirable to  vary  the  quantity  of  yeast  according  to  her 
conditions-.  Time,  temperature,  and  quantity  of  yeast 
must  be  considered, — if  one  must  be  diminished,  the 
others  should  be  increased. 

short          For  common  use,  a  short  process  is  to  be  preferred 
JQ  the  o|cj  custorn  Of  letting  the  dough  rise  over,  night- 


286 


BREAD.  105 

When  it  rises  by  day  we  can  regulate  the  temperature 
and  stop  the  process  at  the  right  time.  One  yeast  cake 
to  one  pint  of  liquid  and  about  three  pints  of  flour,  will 
make  two  medium-sized  loaves  of  bread,  which  can  be 
completed  inside  of  six  hours. 


BREAD  MAKING  MACHINE. 

When  necessary,  a  dough  well  risen  and  ready  to      Holding 
shape  may  be  cut  down  and  put  in  a  refrigerator  or      STchec 
other  cold  place  and  thus  held  in  check  for  several 
hours  without  injury.    Sometimes  half  the  bread  may 
be  shaped  in  a  loaf  and  the  remainder  in  rolls  and  the  ' 
pans  containing  the  latter  set  away  in  a  cool  place  for 
several  hours  before  baking  that  they  may  be  hot  for  a 
later  meal. 

When  first  mixed,  dough  is  kneaded  just  enough  to      »iSing 
blend  all  ingredients,  then  it  is  put  back  in  the  bowl, 


287 


io6  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 

brushed  over  with  water  or  with  melted  fat  and  cov- 
ered while  it  is  rising.  Such  precautions  aid  in  pre- 
venting the  formation  of  a  dry  crust  caused  by  the 
evaporation  of  the  water  on  the  surface  during  the 
process-  of  rising.  The  bowl  containing  the  dough 
may  be  set  in  a  pan  of  warm  water  which  is  changed 
often  enough  to  keep  the  temperature  even.  When  the 
dough  must  stand  over  night  in  a  cool  kitchen,  the 
bowl  may  be  wrapped  in  a  blanket  to  prevent  the  es- 
cape of  heat. 

Kneading  Much  time  is  doubtless  wasted  in  kneading  doughs, 
though  it  seems  to  be  agreed  that  this  process  works 
all  ingredients  together  and  thus  give  a  better  texture 
to  the  bread.  To  knead  work  the  edges  of  the  dough 
little  by  little  toward  the  center,  pull  it  over,  press 
down  into  the  mass  and  press  it  away  with  one  hand 
while  turning  the  whole  around  with  the  other.  When 
the  dough  is  smooth,  elastic,  and  rises  quickly  when 
pressed  and  does  not  stick  to  the  hand  then  it  is  done. 

After  the  dough  is  double  in  bulk  it  should  be 
kneaded  enough  to  redistribute  the  air  bubbles  which 
have  run  together  and  formed  larger  ones,  and  to 
shape  it  for  baking.  At  this  stage  no  flour  should  be 
added,  for  here  much  time  would  be  required  to  work 
in  a  little  flour,  and  that  is  why  long  kneading  has 
been  thought  necessary.  Dip  the  fingers  in  soft  fat  if 
the  dough  inclines  to  stick,  as  one  would  do  when  pull- 
ing candy, 
shaping  To  shape  biscuits  or  rolls,. first  make  smooth  round 


288 


BREAD. 


107 


balls,  then  by  gentle  rolling  and  pressure  make  the  fin- 
ger rolls — then  farther  extend  till  the  strips  can  be 
twisted  or  left  as  sticks  for  soup.  Thus  one  form  may 
be  developed  from  another. 

When  rolls  are  to  be  cut  out  and  folded,  the  pressure 
of  the  rolling  pin  will  equalize  the  air  bubbles  without 
previous-  kneading.  Instead  of  making  the  dough  for 
rolls  rich  with  butter  or  lard,  it  is  wiser  to  brush  over 
the  outside  of  the  rolls  with  melted  fat  when  they  are 
put  in  the  pan. 


BUNS— SEPARATE  AND  IN  LOAF. 

Again  the  dough  must  be  allowed  to  double  in  bulk 
and  then  it  is  ready  to  bake. 

To  summarize  the  points  already  covered. — The  time 
required  depends  upon  the  quantity  of  yeast  used,  and 
the  temperature  at  which  the  dough  is  kept.  One 
measure  of  liquid  to  three  of  flour  is  the  usual  propor- 
tion. For  fancy  breads  make  a  sponge  first,  and  let 
the  mixture  rise  three  times.  Large  quantities  of  sugar 
and  butter  tend  to  retard  the  growth  of  the  yeast  plant. 
For  bread  add  all  the  flour  at  once.  Small  shapes-  are 


Suxninftr? 


289 


io8 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 


Baking 
of  Bread 


Cooking  Soda 
with  Acids 


preferable  to  large  ones,  as  thus  more  thorough  cook- 
ing is  insured. 

The  baking  of  bread  is  not  easily  disposed  of  in  a 
few  words.  Yeast  doughs  having  risen  before  being 
put  in  the  oven  will  bear  rather  a  higher  degree  of  heat 
at  first  than  other  doughs.  A  more  moderate  oven 
is  required  for  loaves  than  for  rolls  that  the  heat 
may  penetrate  evenly,  but  the  loaf  must  remain  a  suf- 
ficient time  to  raise  the  center  to  a  degree  of  heat  that 
will  insure  the  destruction  of  the  yeast.  A  moderate 
temperature  might  allow  the  dough  to  continue  rising 
and  even  to  sour  from  the  growth  of  bacteria  when  in 
the  oven. 

When  thoroughly  baked,  a  loaf  of  bread  will  seem 
light  and  hollow  and  no  steam  will  come  from  it  to 
burn  the  hand  as  it  is  turned  from  the  pan. 

The  usual  temperature  for  baking  bread  is  about 
400°  F,  though  a  good  result  may  be  reached  by  a 
more  moderate  heat  continued  for  a  longer  time. 

Experiment.  Three  or  four  glass  tubes  or  common 
tumblers  are  all  the  apparatus  needed  for  some  prac- 
tical experiments  which  will  make  the  use  of  these  leav- 
ening agents  much  clearer  than  does  the  ordinary  cook- 
book. Dissolve  some  soda  in  half  a  tumbler  of  water ; 
in  another  tumbler  dissolve  some  cream  of  tartar,  in 
a  third  have  a  little  molasses;  in  a  fourth  place  some 
sour  milk,  and  in  a  fifth  some  vinegar. 

Now  put  a  .part  of  the  soda  water  into  each  of  the 
other  glasses,  stir  well,  and  watch  the  result.  Leave 


290 


BREAD  AND  OTHER  DOUGHS. 


109 


these  till  later  to  see  how  soon  the  gas  escapes  and 
that  it  cannot  be  revived.  By  tasting  soda  and  cream 
of  tartar  we  shall  see  that  it  is  desirable  to  combine 
them  in  such  proportions  that  each  may  neutralize  the 
other.  This  is  done  in  baking  powders. 

In  another  glass  dissolve  some  baking  powder,  first 
in  cold  and  then  in  warm  water  to  show  that  the  gas 
escapes  more  rapidly  at  a  high  temperature. 


CORN   BREA.D. 


These  experiments  show  us  why  we  should  sift 
cream  of  tartar  and  soda  or  baking  .powder  with  the 
flour  instead  of  dissolving  it  in  liquid.  The  gas  which 
is  to  make  the  dough  light  begins  to  escape  from  the 
soda  when  it  comes  in  contact  with  an  acid  liquid. 

Some  baking  powder  manufacturers  try  to  convince 
us  that  their  product  is  so  perfect  that  it  is  useless  for 
the  housekeeper  to  continue  to  keep  soda  and  cream  of 
tartar  in  her  store  closet.  But  much  as  we  owe  to  their 
perfect  methods1  of  grinding1,  and  sifting  and  combining 


Soda  and 
Cream  ot 
Tartar 


291 


no 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 


Molasses 
and  Soda 


Sour  Milk 
and   Soda 


these  substances  in  the  right  proportions,  there  are 
times  when  we  must  use  them  separately. 

Angel  cake,  for  example,  requires  the  addition  of 
cream  of  tartar  to  stiffen  the  egg-white  which  is  its 
foundation.  This  aids  in  holding  up  the  spongy  mass 
until  it  is  made  firm  by  heat.  In  any  case  where  there 
is  a  large  proportion  of  egg-white  a  slight  excess  of 
cream  of  tartar  is  desirable. 

That  molasses  is  acid  in  spite  of  its  sweetness  is  evi- 
dent by  testing  it  with  a  bit  of  soda.  For  this  reason 
soda  is  added  to  molasses  candy  since  if  it  is  filled  with 
air  bubbles  it  will  be  more  brittle.  The  acidity  varies 
in  different  grades  of  molasses,  and  modern  methods 
of  manufacture  and  quick  transportation  give  us  a  less 
acid  product  than  that  of  the  past.  -  This  explains  why 
many  of  the  recipes  of  our  great-grandmothers  called 
for  such  large  quantities  of  soda  in  gingerbread,  etc. 
In  such  recipes  it  is  usually  wise  to  reduce  the  quantity 
of  soda  and  use  a  small  amount  of  baking  powder. 
Brown  bread  and  all  cakes  and  puddings  containing 
molasses,  because  of  its  acidity,  are  usually  more  pal- 
atable if  some  soda  is  used  to  make  them  light  instead 
of  baking  powder  only. 

Butter  contains  so  much  buttermilk  that,  unless  it  is 
washed  before  using,  a  bit  of  soda  is-  essential  for  all 
rich  cakes  and  cookies  which  are  to  be  kept  for  any 
length  of  time. 

Because  of  the  tendency  to  use  an  excess  of  soda 
with  it,  the  use  of  sour  milk  has  been  condemned.  But 


292 


BREAD  AND  OTHER  DOUGHS.  in 

thick,  sour  milk  is  not  very  variable  in  acidity,  and  the 
use  of  one  even  teaspoonful  of  soda  with  each  pint  of 
sour  milk  is  safe.  Soda  is  inexpensive  and  sour  milk 
is  also,  while  cream  of  tartar  and  baking  powder  are 
costly.  One  half  level  teaspoon  of  soda  is  usually 
enough  when  one  cup  of  molasses  is  used,  as  it  is  with 
one  cup  of  sour  milk.  When  it  is  more  convenient  to 


BOSTON   BROWN   BREAD. 

substitute  sweet  milk  for  sour,  we  retain  the  soda  and 
add  one  slightly  rounding  teaspoonful  of  cream  of  tar- 
tar. 

Baking  powder  contains  some  starch,  but  two  or 
three  level  teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder  are  equal  in 
effect  to  one  rounding  teaspoonful  of  cream  of  tartar 
and  the  half  level  teaspoonful  of  soda. 

Just  why  some  good  old  recipes  recommend  dissolv- 
ing soda  in  hot  water  before  adding  it  to  the  other 
ingredients,  or  mixing  it  with  hot  molasses,  is  uncer- 
tain. Perhaps  the  housewives  wanted  to  "see  with 


293 


ii2  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 

their  eyes"  that  action  would  result.  Or  the  habit 
might  have  been  the  result  of  the  impure  quality  of 
the  alkaline  substance.  The  "pearl  ash,"  as  saleratus 
was  called,  was  not  as  finely  pulverized  as  is  the  soda  of 
today,  and  may  not  have  been  as  thoroughly  purified 
from  other  ash.  Hot  water  would  dissolve  it  quickly, 
any  impurities  would  settle,  and  even  if  some  gas  es- 
caped enough  was  left  to  do  the  work  of  puffing  up 
the  dough. 

Such  small  quaniities  relatively  of  soda,  cream  of 
tartar,  and  baking  powder  are  used  in  a  dough  that  it 
has-  been  a  question  how  they  should  be  mixed  with 
the  other  ingredients  to  secure  the  most  perfect  result. 
The  dough  should  be  light  throughout,  not  here  a  solid 
streak, .and  there  large  bubbles. 

Some  teachers  of  cookery  have  recommended  sifting 
the  one  or  two  teaspoon fuls  of  baking  powder  over  a 
cake  after  it  was  mixed  and  beating  thoroughly  just 
before  pouring  into  the  pan  in  which  it  is  to  be  baked. 
But  as  soon  as  the  powder  comes  in  contact  with  the 
moist  surface  of  the  dough  some  gas  will  be  lost,  and 
moreover,  it  is  doubtful  whether  two  teaspoonfuls  of 
baking  powder  can  be  evenly  mixed  through  a  quart 
of  cake  batter  without  much  beating  which  does  not 
improve  the  quality  of  the  cake  at  that  stage  and  de- 
lays the  baking. 

The  accepted  plan  at  present  is  to  sift  with  the  flour 
the  baking  powder  or  cream  of  tartar  and  soda  or  the 


294 


BREAD  AND  OTHER  DOUGHS.  113 

soda  alone  when  it  is  to  be  used  with  some  sour  milk 
or  molasses. 

The  sooner  the  process  is  completed  after  the  acid 
and  soda  meet  each  other  the  better.  Therefore  we 
keep  all  the  materials  dry  until  the  last  moment,  then 
mix  quickly  and  bake  at  once. 

Similar  recipes  are  found  in  all  cook  books,  and  once 
the  general,  proportions  and  the  office  of  each  ingre- 


RYE    MUFFINS. 

dient  are  learned,  it  is  easy  to  make  many  variations. 
The  process1  of  mixing  is  practically  the  same  in  all 
cases.  Prepare  the  fire  and  dishes  for  cooking,  be- 
fore mixing  any  of  the  ingredients  measure  every- 
thing, sift  all  dry  materials  together,  add  liquids,  mix 
all  thoroughly,  and  cook  immediately. 

Changes  in  the  proportions  of  materials  often  lead 
to  a  change  in  the  manner  of  mixing  them.  For  ex- 
ample, when  a  small  quantity  of  shortening  is  used  in 
batters,  it  may  be  melted  and  beaten  in,  but  if  a  large 


General 
Directions 


Manner 
of  Mixing 


295 


H4  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 

proportion  is  required,  it  should  be  rubbed  till  creamy 
and  blended  with  the  sugar  as  for  cake,  or  mixed  into 
the  flour  as  in  pastry  making.  For  stiff  doughs  which 
are  to  be  rolled,  it  is  essential  that  the  fat  should  be 
put  in  cold  since  even  a  small  quantity,  if  warm,  will 
tend  to  make  the  dough  soft  and  sticky.  We  grease 
'Shortening"  pans,  griddles,  etc.,  because  fat  prevents  adhesion;  in 
the  same  way  fat  in  a  dough  keeps  the  particles  sepa- 
rate and  makes  it  break  apart  readily,  so  that  we  call 
it  "short"  or  "tender."  Hence  shortening  is  any  form 
of  fat  that  will  accomplish  such  a  result.  To  give  like 
results,  more  shortening  is  required  with  bread  flour 
high  in  gluten  than  with  pastry  flour  low  in  gluten. 

Eggs  in  doughs,  as  in  other  cases,  have  the  quality 
of  making  particles  hold  together,  just  the  reverse  of 
shortening.  Any  dough  containing  much  egg  will  be 
elastic  and  spongy,  and  if  cooked  too  quickly  will  be 
tough.  Doughs  to  be  made  rich  with  butter,  like 
pound  cake,  may  be  saved  from  heaviness  by  the  use 
of  eggs. 

PASTRY  AND  CAKE 

Shortcake  and  pastry  are  illustrations  of  the  use  of 
much  fat  in  doughs  and  the  result  is  brittle  and  tender. 
Success  in  pastry-making  depends  more  upon  keeping 
the  ingredients  cold  and  handling  the  dough  deftly 
than  any  special  formula  or  order  of  mixing.  When 
but  a  small  amount  of  shortening  is  used,  a  small  quan- 
tity of  baking  powder  is  helpful ;  this,  of  course,  is 
omitted  in  puff  pastry,  in  which  the  weights-  of  the 


296 


PASTRY  AND  CAKE. 


flour  and  butter  are  equal,  and  it  is  not  essential  in 
other  cases. 

Few  doughs  require  a  smaller  number  of  ingredients 
than  pastry ;  flour,  salt,  shortening,  and  liquid  are  the 
essentials,  and  air  is  incorporated  in  the  process  of  mix- 
ing. When  the  flour  and  shortening  are  warm  they 
stick  together  so  that  less  air  is  mixed  into  the  dough. 


APPLE  PIE  IN  DEEP  PLATE. 

The  process  of  rolling  and  folding  is  a  device  for  catch- 
ing more  air  in  the  dough.  This  air,  when  heated,  ex- 
pands and  puffs  the  layers  apart.  The  colder  the  air 
mixed  in  the  dough  the  greater  its  expansion  in  baking. 
In  cake-making  a  single,  well  proportioned  formula 
may  be  made  the  basis  for  a  great  number  of  varieties. 
Therefore,  it  is  essential  that  the  fundamental  princi- 
ples be  understood,  then  the  variations  can  be  accom- 
plished easily. 


Pastry 


Cake 

Making 


297 


CAKE. 


117 


The  principles  underlying  sponge  cake  were  ex- 
plained in  the  section  on  eggs.  The  main  points  in 
such  cakes,  which  contain  no  butter  and  are  made  light 
by  eggs  only,  are  to  mix  carefully  that  sufficient  air 
may  be  entangled  in  the  dough  to  make  it  light,  and 
then  to  bake  slowly  but  thoroughly. 

The  shape  in  which  cake  is  to  be  baked  should  de- 
cide the  proportion  of  flour  to  be  used.  Layer  cakes  or 
small  cakes  require  less  flour  than  large  loaves.  This  is 
probably  because  the  small  cake  is-  stiffened  more 
quickly  by  the  heat,  while  the  large  mass  must  be 
stiffened  with  flour  to  hold  up  the  air  cells  until  the 
heat  can  penetrate  the  whole.  Variations  in  cake  are 
easily  obtained  through  changes  in  flavoring  ingredi- 
ents. To  mix  chocolate  in  the  cake  melt  it  and  mix 
with  the  sugar  and  butter.  Such  a  cake  might  have  a 
white  frosting  flavored  with  vanilla. 

A  cake  flavored  with  almond  may  have  a  few  shred- 
ded almonds-  sprinkled  over  the  top  just  before  the  cake 
is  put  in  the  oven.  Almond  paste  can  be  rubbed  into 
the  butter  and  sugar  in  making  cookies ;  it  is  rather 
rich  and  heavy  for  a  cake.  Desiccated  cocoanut, 
chopped  nuts,  raisins,  currants,  dates,  citron,  candied 
orange  and  lemon  peel,  singly  or  in  various  combina- 
tions, serve  to  give  us  many  cakes  from  a  single  recipe. 
•  The  ingredients  mentioned  for  pastry  are  com- 
mon to  all  cakes  as  well,  but  further  variety  is  gained 
by  the  addition  of  sweetening  and  seasoning.  Air  or 
gas-  to  make  the  cake  light  is  obtained  by  the  use  of 


Sponge 
Cake 


Flavoring 


299 


Sweetening 


Relative 

Proportions 

in  Cake 


ii8  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 

beaten  eggs  and  of  baking  powders,  etc.,  as  well  as  by 
creaming  butter  and  beating  the  blended  ingredients. 
The  shortening  for  this  class  of  dishes  may  be  lard, 
dripping,  nut  oil,  cottolene,  butter,  or  cream,  each  hav- 
ing its  own  special  characteristic.  When  these  are 
known,  combinations  and  substitutions  are  possible  to 
adapt  a  given  formula  to  the  available  materials. 

The  range  of  sweetening  is  limited  to  sugar  and  mo- 
lasses, but  the  quantity  to  be  used  in  a  cake  should  be 


SPONGE   CAKE   STUFFED   WITH   CREAM. 

reduced  if  a  frosting  or  sweet  filling  is  to  be  added 
later. 

When  we  consider  the  long  list  of  spices  and  ex- 
tracts and  fruits  and  nuts  available  for  seasoning  the 
cake,  we  can  see  how  it  is  possible  to  make  many  va- 
rieties of  the  same  cake. 

There  is  a  certain  relative  proportion  to  be  followed 
in  the  use  of  these  ingredients  which,  once  learned, 


300 


COOKING  OF  DOUGHS. 


119 


enable  us  to  decide  whether  a  recipe  is  reliable.  In 
butter  cakes  there  is  usually  less  butter  than  sugar, 
and  less  sugar  than  flour.  When  baking  powder  is 
used  less  is  required  than  would  be  necessary  for  a 
dough  where  there  are  no  eggs.  Thus  two  even  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  baking  powder  is  enough  for  three  cups 
of  flour  for  a  cake  in  which  three  or  four  eggs  are  use. 
Some  cooks  use  from  one  to  two  teaspoons  of  bak- 
ing powder  for  each  cup  of  flour  in  all  cases,  forgetting 
that  the  eggs  alone  would  make  a  cake  quite  light. 
When  there  is  an  excess  of  baking  powder,  the  cake  is 
liable  to  be  coarse  grained  and  will  dry  quickly. 

Dutch  apple  cake  and  cottage  pudding  are  similar  to 
the  common  muffin  mixture  in  the  proportions  of  flour, 
liquid,  etc.,  but  are  made  richer  by  increasing  the  quan- 
tity of  fat  and  sugar. 

The  ordinary  doughnut  mixture  is  not  unlike  a  cot- 
tage pudding  dough,  with  the  addition  of  flour  to  make 
it  stiff  enough  to  roll  easily.  Or  it  is  similar  to  the 
quick  biscuit  dough  with  the  addition  of  sugar,  egg, 
ad  spice.  Because  doughnuts  are  cooked  in  fat,  less 
shortening  is  required  than  for  most  stiff  doughs. 

Cooky  doughs  are  more  like  pastry  with  the  addi- 
tion of  sugar,  spice,  and  egg,  and  the  same  care  should 
be  given  to  keeping  the  dough  cold  in  order  to  roll  and 
cut  it  without  adhering  to  the  board. 

COOKING  OF  DOUGHS 

Doughs  are  steamed,  baked  in  the  oven,  or  on  a  grid- 
dle on  top  of  the  stove.  Such  mixtures  of  many  differ- 


Cottage 
Pudding 


Cookies 


301 


120 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 


ent  ingredients  are  more  difficult  to  cook  than  the  sepa- 
rate substances  of  which  they  are  composed,  though 
heat  affects  each  ingredient  in  combination  much  a.s  it 
does  singly.  Sugar  carmelizes  and  this  aids  in  pro- 
ducing a  golden  brown  color  in  the  crust  of  anything 


AN  ACCURATE  OVEN  THERMOMETER. 

Punch  a  hole  in  a  comnjon  gas  stove  oven  and  insert  thermometer, 
which  will  register  to  600  degrees  F,  wrapped  with  asbestos  and  wire 
where  it  passes  through  the  top. 

containing  it.  Since  it  burns  readily,  cakes  and  cookies 
are  more  liable  to  be  scorched  than  unsweetened 
doughs.  Flour  browns  when  exposed  to  dry  heat. 

Eggs  cook  at  a  low  temperature.  Butter  melts, 
hence  doughs  containing  much  must  contain  more  flour 
than  those  that  have  little  or  none. 


302 


COOKING  OF  DOUGHS. 


121 


The  heat  applied  should  conform  to  the  way  in 
which  it  affects  the  principal  ingredients  in  any  dough. 
Those  containing  many  eggs  need  moderate  heat,  etc., 
etc.  The  size  and  shape  of  the  article  are  also  to  be 
considered.  In  general,  small  thin  portions  require 
less  time  but  will  bear  higher  temperature  than  larger 
portions  as  with  bread  doughs. 

There  are  various  tests  for  the  heat  of  the  oven. 
Oven  thermometers  are  valuable  aids,  showing  com- 
parative if  not  actual  degree  of  heat.  When  a  ther- 
mometer is  inaccessible,  a  piece  of  white  paper  or  a 
teaspoonful  of  flour  if  charred  from  a  five  minutes' 
stay  in  the  oven  indicate  too  great  heat  and  other  de- 
grees may  be  gauged  accordingly.  All  parts  of  an 
oven  are  not  equally  hot  and  each  housekeeper  must 
study  her  own. 

The  lower  part  of  a  gas  oven  is  very  hot  because 
the  full  force  of  heat  is  below ;  in  the  wood  or  coal 
range  one  side  is  usually  hotter  than  the  other  because 
of  the  position  of  the  firebox. 


Heat 
Required 


303 


FORM  AND  FLAVORS 

Thus  far  we  have  studied  the  fundamental  princi- 
ples- of  cooking  and  have  seen  that  some  knowledge 
of  the  chemical  composition  of  each  food  is  necessary 
before  we  can  secure  the  best  result  through  the  ap- 
plication of  heat  and  moisture.  But  this  is  only  the 
foundation  of  the  art  of  cookery. 

variety  The  form  in  which  our  food  is  served  may  attract 
or  repel,  and  the  flavor  may  make  it  appetizing  or  the 
reverse.  We  must  depend  mainly  for  sustenance  upon 
a  few  kinds  of  meat,  vegetables,  grains,  and  fruits,  and 
unless  variety  were  secured  in  some  way  we  should 
quickly  tire  of  them. 

Through  the  ingenuity  of  cooks  of  all  times  and 
countries,  so  many  combinations  have  been  devised,  by 
changes  in  flavor  and  form,  that  some  of  our  common 
foods  might  appear  in  different  guise  every  day  in  the 
year. 

The  multiplicity  of  formulas  in  our  cook-books,  even 
when  well  classified,  are  puzzling  to  the  beginner  who 
has  not  learned  to  analyze  each  recipe  and  thus  find  the 
simple  processes-  of  which  it  consists. 

"Fancy"  What  is  generally  termed  "fancy"  or  "high-class" 
Cookery  cookery  is  merely  the  application  of  the  simple  proc- 
esses to  costly  foods  or  a  further  complicated  prepara- 
tion to  foods  which  have  first  been  cooked  as  perfectly 
as  possible,  according  to  the  principles1  already  out- 
lined. 

123 


304 


FORM. 


123 


For  example,  if  we  have  learned  how  to  make  a 
white  sauce  and  how  to  cook  meats  and  vegetables,  we 
do  not  require  separate  detailed  recipes  for  creamed 
chicken,  creamed  oysters,  creamed  potatoes,  creamed 
cauliflower,  or  creamed  asparagus;  we  only  need  to 
make  the  sauce  a  little  thinner  or  thicker  to  offset  the 


Creamet 
Dishes 


CREAMED   FISH  IN   RAMEKINS. 

dry  or  watery  nature  of  the  article  with  which  it  is  to 
be  put  and  to  vary  the  flavor  slightly  to  adapt  it  to  an- 
other material. 

Furthermore,  any  such  creamed  meat  or  vegetable 
may  be  served  plain,  or  on  toast,  or  in  timbale  cases,  or 
combined  with  buttered  crumbs,  as  a  "scallop,"  or  by 
the  addition  of  stiff  egg  whites  it  becomes  a  "souffle" 
when  baked.  When  the  sauce  is  made  of  double  thick- 
ness, and  combined  with  the  meat  or  vegetable  and 
chilled,  the  mass  may  be  shaped  into  croquettes  or  cut- 


Variety 

in  Serving 


305 


124 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 


Adaptation 


Principle 
of  Contrast 


Made 
Dishes 


lets  which  are  then  coated  with  egg  and  crumbs  and 
fried. 

Thus  any  intelligent  woman  knowing  something  of 
the  nature  of  foods  and  the  effect  of  heat  and  moisture 
may  to  some  extent  make  her  own  recipes  or  adapt  oth- 
ers to  the  supplies  available  at  the  moment. 

No  cook-book  can  be  sufficiently  expanded  to  pro- 
vide for  great  variation  in  climate,  food  materials,  and 
utensils.  The  cook  must  constantly  adapt  to  her  condi- 
tions, she  must  be  observant  of  the  changes  of  tem- 
perature and  learn  when  one  food  material  or  flavor 
may  be  substituted  for  another. 

If  uncertain  about  the  wisest  combination  of  ar- 
ticles of  food,  whether  in  a  single  dish  or  for  the  differ- 
ent courses  in  a  menu,  it  is  safe  to  follow  the  plan  of 
contrast.  Thus  the  cream  soup  is  served  with  crisp 
crackers  or  croutons,  the  creamed  fish  is  covered  with 
buttered  crumbs  and  baked  till  crisp,  the  croquettes 
are  crisp  outside  and  creamy  within. 

Another  point  is  to  add  to  any  food,  substances  sup- 
plying any  of  the  food  principles  it  lacks.  Potatoes  are 
mashed  with  cream  or  butter  because  they  lack  fat,  are 
blended  with  egg  for  croquettes  or  souffle  because  they 
lack  protein.  Eggs  lack  starch,  so  we  serve  them  on 
toast  or  use  them  in  puddings  with  rice,  tapioca,  etc. 
.  Composite  preparations  of  food,  often  classed  as  en- 
trees or  made  dis-hes,  are  known  by  many  names  de- 
rived from  different  languages,  especially  from  the 
French. 


306 


FORM.  125 

Here  is  no  place  to  attempt  to  define  all  the  terms 

Names 

used  on  a  menu  card,  but  we  may  group  some  of  these 
compound  dishes  under  a  few  general  heads  and  study 
their  characteristics. 

Soups  have  as  their  basis  either  animal  or  vegetable  Soups 
stock  or  both  combined.  Stock  is  secured  by  the  aid  of 
heat  and  moisture  from  portions  of  meat  and  vegeta- 
bles too  tough  to  be  used  in  other  ways.  Flavor  and 
some  nutriment  are  soaked,  cooked  and  strained  out, 
and  this  water  is  the  stock  which  is  then  further  fla- 
vored and  garnished  by  the  addition  of  some  contrast- 
ing substance.  Thus  a  meat  stock  is  usually  garnished 
with  grains  or  shreds  of  vegetable,  and  a  vegetable 
stock  is  often  combined  with  milk  and  thickened. 

Stews  are  thick  soups  containing  larger  portions  of  stews 
the  meat  and  vegetables.  These  are  also  known  as 
chowders,  ragouts,  salmis,  etc.,  etc.  Sometimes  a  stew 
has-  dumplings  steamed  over  it,  sometimes  it  is  cov- 
ered with  a  crust  of  pastry,  mashed  potatoes,  or  cooked 
cereal  and  baked  as  a  pie.  Here  again  are  combined 
contrasting  food  principles. 

Hash  is  a  term  that  also  may  include  the  assortment  Hash 
of  foods  known  as  scallops,  timbales,  etc.,  since  the 
substance  giving  a  specific  name  to  each  of  these  is 
minced  or  chopped  fine  before  it  is  combined  with  other 
materials.  Meat  and  fish  are  put  on  toast  or  mixed 
with  potatoes  or  bread  crumbs  or  encased  in  rice  or 
in  a  pastry  shell.  The  exact  proportions  of  the  con- 


307 


126 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 


Souffles 


Salads 


Left  Overs 


trasting  ingredients  is  of  less  importance  than  their 
proper  moistening  and  flavoring. 

The  scallop  owes-  its  name  to  the  shell  in  which  it  is 
often  served.  Au  gratm  is  another  name  for  the  same 
combination  of  a  meat  or  vegetable  with  sauce  and 
crumbs.  The  croquette  gets  its  name  from  its  crisp 
crust,  the  timbale  from  its  thimble-like  shape.  Rissoles 
and  kromeskies  are  kinds  of  fried  meat  pies  or  cro- 
quettes in  a  pastry  crust. 

Souffles  have  as  a  foundation  fruit  or  vegetable  pulp 
or  minced  meat  in  a  sauce  and  are  puffed  up  by  the  in- 
troduction of  stiffly  beaten  egg  whites.  The  name  is 
sometimes  given  to  cold  dishes  where  a  similar  effect  is 
gained  by  whipped  cream. 

Salads  may  consist  of  cold  cooked  meats,  fish,  etc., 
vegetables  cooked  or  raw,  fruits  and  nuts.  Almost  any 
food  may  be  served  in  a  salad,  singly  or  in  combina- 
tion. The  distinctive  feature  of  a  salad  is  the  dressing 
of  fat,  oil,  butter,  or  thick  cream,  which  is  variously 
flavored. 

Many  of  the  most  satisfactory  of  these  made  dishes 
doubtless  had  their  origin  in  an  effort  to  use  left-overs. 

Milk  surplus  may  be  used  in  many  ways.  Skimmed 
milk  answers  as  well  as  full  milk  for  soups  and  doughs 
when  fat  is  also  used.  Even  if  otherwise  likely  to 
curdle  in  heating,  the  addition  of  a  little  cooking  soda 
makes  it  possible  to  scald  milk,  and  then  it  may  be  used 
for  custards,  puddings,  etc.  Sour  milk  is  available  for 


308 


FORM. 


127 


doughs  and  cheese,  and  cream  may  be  substituted  for 
butter  and  milk  in  simpler  cakes  and  cookies. 

Eggs  left  at  the  table  in  a  soft-boiled  condition  may 
be  cooked  again  until  hard  and  then  combined  with 
sauces  and  served  on  toast  or  used  as  a  garnish  in 
soups  or  salads. 

Meat  left-overs  should  be  carefully  sorted. 

The  obloquy  heaped  upon  hashes  is  due  to  careless- 
ness. All  uneatable  portions, — bone,  skin,  and  gristle, 
should  be  removed,  but  may  yield  a  little  stock  if  put 
in  cold  water.  The  clear  lean  may  have  about  one- 
fourth  as  much  fat  with  it  if  it  is  to  be  used  in  the  com- 
bination with  potatoes,  bread  or  cereal.  There  may  be 
two  grades  of  the  lean,  one  cut  in  pieces  of  uniform 
shape  an  inch  or  more  across,  to  be  served  in  a  sauce 
or  moulded  in  a  jelly;  the  other  to  be  chopped  fine  for 
hashes,  croquettes,  etc. 

Vegetables.  Cooked  vegetables  spoil  quickly  but 
often  may  serve  as  soup,  or  a  scallop,  or  a  salad  for  a 
second  meal. 

Fruits.  It  seems  practically  impossible  to  put  to- 
gether several  kinds  of  fruit  without  good  results. 
Combinations  of  left-over  fruits,  raw  or  cooked,  will 
serve  as  the  basis  of  a  gelatine  dessert  made  like  the 
jelly  described  elsewhere,  or  may  be  frozen  alone,  or 
combined  with  crea'm,  or  thickened  for  a  pudding 
sauce,  or  diluted  with  water  for  a  fruit  punch.  Add 
sugar  as  desired. 


Meat 
Left  Overs 


309 


128 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 


Attractive 
Form 


Garnish 


Shapes 


Bread.  No  scrap  of  bread  of  any  kind  need  be  lost. 
Brown  bread  and  muffins  of  different  kinds  are  some- 
times wasted  when  they  might  be  steamed,  or  toasted 
and  served  in  cream  sauce,  or  made  into  puddings  like 
a  baked  Indian  pudding.  Slices  of  stale  raised  bread, 
dried,  gives  us  croutons,  cut  in  cubes,  or  crumbs  white 
and  brown,  coarse  and  fine,  to  use  for  scalloped  dishes, 
stuffing  for  fish  and  poultry,  and  for  many  kinds  of 
sweet  puddings. 

The  use  of  gelatine  is  an  instance  of  our  endeavor 
to  make  foods  attractive  in  form.  It  has  doubtful  food 
value  and  m>  agreeable  flavor,  but  it  gives  solidity  to 
fruit  juices,  or  in  aspic  jelly  to  soup  stock,  and  in  such 
jellies  we  may  mould  fruits  for  dessert,  or  meat  and 
vegetables  for  salad. 

Garnish  is  often  desirable  to  make  foods  more  ap- 
petizing, but  it  is  a  question  whether  this  purpos-e  is 
served  by  the  addition  of  unedible  materials  which 
must  be  laid  one  side  before  the  food  itself  is  accessible. 

The  truest  art  does  not  waste  effort  on  useless  things. 

The  form  of  foods  is  further  varied  by  utensils  pro- 
ducing different  shapes,  the  meat  choppers  with  ad- 
justable knives  for  particles  of  different  sizes,  the 
fancy  knives  for  making  thin  slices  or  balls  of  vegeta- 
bles and  fruits,  the  muffin  pans,  waffle  iron,  the  timbale 
iron,  the  many  cutters  and  moulds  for  puddings,  etc, 
The  tendency  of  the  present  day  is  plainly  towards 
small  portions  for  individual  service,  and  here  again  a 


310 


FORM. 


129 


new  recipe  is  not  required,  only  the  necessary  changes 
in  time  of  cooking  which  would  result  when  a  mass  was 
divided  into  several  portions-.  Moulds  in  which  a  food 
is  to  be  cooked  should  be  greased,  but  rinsed  with  cold 
.  water  when  the  food  is  only  to  be  cooled  in  them. 

Scales  and  measures  are  lacking  in  many  kitchens 
and  accurate  work  is  impossible  without  them.     The 


SALMON   LOAF. 

average  kitchen  need  not  be  furnished  with  many 
special  utensils,  but  there  should  be  a  full  supply  of 
"general  purpose"  articles  of  the  best  grade  of  mate- 
rial and  finish. 

The  utensils  should  be  adapted  to  the  size  of  the 
family  and  to  the  physical  ability  of  those  who  are 
to  use  them.  The  saving  of  human  life  and  energy 
is  more  to  be  considered  than  the  durability  of  imple- 
ments. 


Weighing 


Utensils 


311 


Preparation 


Eight 
Heat 


Common 
Salt 


FLAVOR 

The  art  of  cooking  shows  us  many  ways  of  develop- 
ing the  appetizing  flavor  of  foods. 

First,  by  the  removal  of  whatever  might  pf  oduce  bad 
flavors,  such  portions  as  skin  and  tainted  bits-  of  meat, 
decayed  parts  of  vegetables,  and  over  brown  portions 
of  bread  and  cake. 

Second,  by  the  right  application  of  heat  and  moisture 
to  bring  out  the  natural  flavors  in  each  food.  The 
steeping  of  tea  instead  of  boiling,  the  browning  of  the 
coffee  berry  and  cocoa  bean  before  they  are  ground, 
the  flavor  developed  by  long  cooking  in  cases  like  the 
baking  of  beans  and  steaming  of 'puddings  and  brown 
bread.  Sometimes  a  portion  of  the  nutritive  value  is 
sacrificed  to  flavor,  as  in  the  browning  of  the  outer 
surface  of  the  steak  or  roast. 

Third,  by  the  use  of  many  additional  flavoring  ma- 
terials to  intensify  natural  flavors  to  supply  deficiencies 
and  to  produce  variety. 

Salt  is  useful  as  a  preservative,  seems  to  supply  a 
need  in  the  human  system  and  therefore  is  an  agreea- 
ble addition,  but  it  also  serves  to  bring  out  natural 
flavors.  As  an  illustration  of  this  power,  taste  of  a 
meat  or  chicken  broth  that  is  unsalted,  and  again  after 
salting,  when  the  flavor  of  the  meat  will  be  much  more 
apparent.  For  this  purpose  salt  is  often  eaten  with 
fruits,  is  added  in  minute  quantities  to  lemon  and  other 
jellies  made  with  gelatine,  to  custards,  ice  creams,  and 
often  even  to  coffee. 

130 


312 


FLAVOR.  131 

Lemon  juice  is  also  an  .aid  in  extending  other  flavor 
and  is  acceptable  with  many  foods,  especially  fish. 

Salt,  pepper,  lemon,  and  onion  are  the  extent  of  the 
flavors  used  in  some  households,  and  food  need  not  be 
insipid  if  no  others  are  tried,  but  it  is  wiser  to  make 
occasional  use  of  the  long  list  of  condiments  and 
spices. 

The  distinction  as  usually  made  is  that  the  condi- 
m  /its  pepper,  mustard,  etc.,  are  used  with  meats, 
wKle  spices,  cloves,  ginger,  cinnamon,  nutmeg,  etc., 
are  associated  with  fruits  and  sweets,  but  this  classi- 
fication has  exceptions.  Spices  are  neglected  nowa- 
days and  it  often  seems  as  if  people  hardly  were  ac- 
quainted with  any  other  flavor  for  dessert  dishes  than 
vanilla.  The  list  of  flavoring  herbs  is  a  long  one,  run- 
ning through  sage,  thyme,  majoram,  summer  savory, 
bay  leaves,  tarragon  and  parsley,  which  are  used  dry 
or  fresh,  to  the  green  mint,  cress,  and  salad  plants 
which  are  condimental  rather  than  nutritive. 

There  are  many  compound  flavors  which  every 
housekeeper  should  keep  in  her  store  closet,  and  use  in 
her  cooking  instead  of  supplying  a  single  perennial 
:atsup  on  the  table,  such  are  curry,  tabasco,  tarragon 
vinegar,  mushroom  catsup,  poultry  seasoning,  etc. 

Onion,  celery,  cheese,  chocolate,  coffee,  meat  ex- 
tracts, each  may  have  an  important  place  in  our  list  of 
flavors. 

Sugar  is  an  important  food  and  also  must  be  looked 
upon  as  a  flavor,  since  it  will  often  bring  an  insipid 
vegetable  up  to  its  normal  condition. 


Common 

Flavoring 

Material 


Condiments 
and  Spices 


Sugar 

as  Flavoring 


313 


132 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 


Blended 
Flavors 


Adding 
Flavoring 


Reasons 

for  the  Use 

of  Flavoring 


French  cooking  excels  in  that  blending  of  flavors 
which  produces  an  agreeable  effect,  though  no  one  is 
apparent. 

The  best  results  are  usually  reached  when  the  flavor- 
ing is  combined  with  the  food  in  the  process  of  cook- 
ing, but  there  are  right  and  wrong  ways  of  doing  this. 
If  salt  is  put  on  the  cut  surface  of  a  roast,  juice  will  be 
drawn  out,  but  if  sprinkled  over  the  fat  will  gradually 
flavor  all.  Whole  herbs  and  spices,  tied  in  a  bit  of 
cheese  cloth  may  be  left  to  cook  in  a  soup  stock  or 
brown  gravy  until  the  desired  flavor  is  attained  and 
then  withdrawn,  leaving  the  stock  clear.  Ground  spices 
would  give  a  cloudy  effect. 

The  use  of  flavors  is  economic,  for  thus  inexpensive 
foods  are  varied  and  made  palatable.  It  is  a  part  of 
the  art  of  cooking,  since  nowhere  are  greater  skill 
and  intelligence  required  than  in  the  distribution  of 
these  elusive  yet  powerful  substances,  and  by  discrim- 
ination in  the.  use  of  condiments'  and  spices  our  foods 
may  be  made  more  healthful. 


314 


FOOD  FOR  THE  DAY 

In  the  preceding  pages  the  most  important  foods, 
heir  composition  and  preparation  for  the  table  have 
>een  considered.  Our  study  would  be  incomplete  with- 
>ut  some  reference  to  their  best  combination  for  the 
laily  meals  that  they  may  appeal  to  the  palate  and  pro- 
note  health  without  exceeding  the  bounds  of  mod- 
erate incomes. 

There  are  three  important  divisions  in  the  prepara-       Buying 
ion  of  food  for  a  family,  wise  buying,  good  cooking,      £jj£jf 
md  careful  serving.     When  buying  foods  the  house- 
Deeper  should  know  the  sum  available  for  feeding  each 
person  for  the  day  or  week,  she  must  note  the  season 
>f  each  food,  and  also  adapt  her  choice  to  the  climate 
md    weather.      She     must   remember    the    individual 
needs  of  each  member  of  the  household,   depending 
apon  age,  health,  and  occupation. 

The   art  of  cookery    finds    its    field    between    the       Artof 
:hoice  of  food  and  the  serving  of  the  cooked  dishes-  at       cookery 
the   table.     As   with  other  arts  perfection  can  come 
3nly  through  constant  practice  in  manipulation,  and 
from  continual  adaptation  of  conditions  to  the  desired 
snd.    No  formulas  for  combinations  of  foods  can  be 
devised  so  complete  that  continuous  care   is  not  re- 
quired in  every  step  of  the 

133 


315 


134 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 


Cost  of 
Food 


"Constants9 


Few  housekeepers  have  the  time  or  take  the  trouble 
to  keep  their  accounts  in  such  a  way  as  to  know  how 
much  it  costs  to  feed  each  person  in  their  charge  for 
a  day,  week,  or  month ;  fewer  still  know  anything  of 
the  relative  proportion  of  protein,  fat,  and  carbo- 
hydrate which  is  placed  on  the  family  table  week  by 
week. 

When  purchasing  clothing  we  take  note  of  its  wear- 
ing qualities  and  the  ability  to  keep  us  warm,  but  we 
seldom  apply  the  same  reasoning  to  our  foods,  al- 
though it  is  quite  as  necessary. 

Some  one  has  estimated  that  in  the  average  house- 
hold one-tenth  of  the  sum  spent  for  food  will  go  for 
flour,  a  tenth  for  butter,  another  for  sugar,  another  for 
milk,  one-fifth  for  meat,  one-fifth  for  fruit  and  vegeta- 
bles, and  the  remaining  fifth  for  sundries. 

There  are  certain  articles  of  which  equal  quantities 
will  be  used  each  week  or  month,  and  by  an  examina- 
tion of  previous  bills  it  is  easy  to  estimate  the  amount 
required  for  a  given  period.  Many  of  these  "con- 
stants'' like  butter,  sugar,  and  flour,  can  be  bought  in 
quantities  sufficient  for  a  month,  then  the  housekeeper 
knows  how  to  apportion  her  money  for  the  variable 
supplies. 

It  is  not  necessary  for  the  housekeeper  to  attempt 
to  estimate  the  proportion  of  food  principles  in  every 
dish  she  serves,  but  once  a  month  or  a  quarter,  if  her 
accounts  are  well  kept,  she  can  see  how  nearly  she  ap- 


316 


FOOD  FOR  A  DAY.  135 

preaches  such  daily  estimate  as  the  one  below  for  each 
member  of  her  family  : 

A  DAY'S  RATION 

Ounces. 

Meat  and  fish    . . 12  to  16 

One    egg    2 

Butter    i  to   2 

Milk,   i  gill  to  i  pt 4  to  16 

Sugar    2  to   3 

Dry  fruits   i 

Legumes    i 

Fresh  vegetables  and  fruits 6  to   8 

Potatoes 8  to  12 

Flour  and  grains  , .  12  to  16 

Multiply  this  by  thirty  and  we  have  a  fair  allow- 
ance for  one  person  for  one  month.  Multiply  this  by 
the  number  of  persons  in  the  family,  or,  to  be  more 
accurate,  by  the  fractional  parts  of  a  man's  ra- 
tions, usually  allowed  for  women  and  children,  and 
we  have  an  ample  supply  for  one  month  for  the  fam- 
iiy. 

If  the  larger  quantity  of  potatoes  has  been  used  the 
smaller  amount  of  flour  would  have  been  ample,  while 
if  eggs  were  cheap  and  two  or  more  consumed  by  each 
person  daily  there  should  be  a  corresponding  reduc- 
tion in  the  amount  of  meat  and  fish. 

Of  the  amount  purchased  there  will  be  not  far  from      Refuse 

andWastB 

10  per  cent  refuse  and  waste.  Refuse  in  the  form  of 
bones,  skin,  and  parings,  waste  of  what  is-  left  on  in- 
dividual plates  and  odd  bits  that  are  spoiled  and  are 


317 


136 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 


A  Day's 
Alowance 


Cost  of 
Labor 


Prepared 
Food 


Buying 


thrown  away.  Much  fat  also  is  thrown  away,  but  it 
should  be  remembered  that  fat  is  worth  more  than 
twice  as  much  as  the  carbohydrates  in  keeping  the  body 
warm. 

Twenty-five  cents  a  head  a  day  is  a  fair  allowance 
for  an  abundance  and  variety  of  wholesome,  satisfying 
food.  Life  may  be  sustained  on  half  that  amount,  while 
fifty  cents  daily  cannot  nourish  more  completely,  but 
may  provide  luxuries  and  foods  out  of  season. 

The  actual  cost  of  table  board  appears,  from  studies 
made  under  different  conditions,  to  be  about  equally 
divided  between  the  raw  material  and  the  labor  re- 
quired for  the  preparation  and  service.  It  may  be 
cheaper  to  pay  a  little  more  for  a  prepared  food  than 
to  use  one's  own  strength  or  pay  for  service  to  get 
ready  a  less  expensive  article. 

The  woman  who  has  time  and  strength  and  no 
other  wa^  to  earn  should  choose  the  cheaper  grade 
of  food.  Cheapness  does  not  always  indicate  mean- 
ness, it  may  mean  an  abundant  supply  or  less  human 
labor  in  preparation. 

There  is  a  growing  tendency  toward  the  fuller 
preparation  of  food  outside  the  home,  but  there  is  the 
more  need  that  the  housekeeper  should  be  familiar 
with  processes  of  manufacture  that  she  may  know 
when  she  is  well  served. 

The  housekeeper  who  never  goes  to  grocery  and 
market  and  does  not  study  the  market  reports  in  the 


• 


318 


FOOD  FOR  A  DAY.  137 

papers  is  rarely  an  economical  buyer.  She  is  liable 
to  go  on  in  the  same  old  routine  instead  of  varying  her 
menus  with  the  litcie  surorises  that  may  be  found  by 
visiting  the  markets.  There  are  bargains  to  be  had  in 
foods  as  well  as  in  clothing,  when  the  market  is  over- 
stocked, or  some  odd  lot  is  left  over.  Cuts  of  meat 
cannot  be  made  to  order  and  the  first  choice  falls  to 
the  early  visitor  to  the  market. 

Where  one  woman  must  take  .entire  care  of  a  fam-  planning 
ily,  she  must  plan  carefully  if  she  would  have  a  well 
balanced  household.  Elaborate  cooking  and  meals  of 
many  courses  are  out  of  the  question  even  if  they  were 
desirable.  Meals  should  be  planned  several  days  in 
advance  and  the  buying-  done  accordingly,  though  such 
plans  will  be  much  modified  in  the  performance. 

A  reserve  store  of  canned  foods,  etc.,  is  a  great  aid 
in  the  emergencies  that  arise  in  all  households. 

By  wise  use  of  outside  supplies  and  by  making  one's      system 
head  do  more  work  and  hands-  and  feet  less,  the  food 
for  a  family  may  be  provided  without  exhausting  the 
energy  of  the  housekeeper. 

The  actual  cooking  necessary  for  a  family  through 
a  day  may  be  done  in  a  shorter  period  than  is  usually 
allotted  to  it  if  the  work  is  planned  wisely.  The  de- 
tail of  arrangement  depends  upon  the  kind  of  fuel 
used,  and  whether  the  chief  meal  is  served  at  noon  or 
night. 


319 


Breakfast 


Dinner 


138  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY. 

The  breakfast  should  be  a  simple  meal — fruit,  raw 
or  cooked,  cereal  or  warm  muffins,  (seldom  both  at 
the  same  meal),  and  eggs,  bacon,  creamed  salt  fish  or 
some  cold  meat.  When  the  meat  is  cold  the  bread  is 
warm,  while  with  bacon  or  omelet  toast  may  be  served. 

Some  one  must  be  in  the  kitchen  for  some  time  to 
prepare  and  serve  even  a  simple  breakfast,  especially 
if  there  are  tardy  members  of  the  family.  With  the 
same  supply  of  fuel  required  for  the  muffins,  it  is  not 
difficult  for  a  woman  of  average  ability  to  bake  a  cake 
or  pudding  which  will  then  be  ready  for  the  noon  or 
the  night  meal.  Or  at  this  time  the  vegetables  may  be 
cleaned,  fruit  picked  over  and  little  details  attended 
to  which  save  much  time  later. 

Noon  dinners  usually  are  considered  easier  for 
housekeeper  and  cook,  since  the  work  can  all  be  done 
by  daylight  and  the  hours  of  work  if  not  actually  less 
are  not  so  extended  through  the  day.  When  supplies 
are  ordered  early  and  delivered  promptly,  much  energy 
and  worry  is  saved.  At  least  half  the  time  the  soup 
may  be  derived  from  previous  supplies,  and  be  pre- 
pared in  advance. 

One  kind  of  meat  or  fish,  potatoes  or  rice  and  a 
single  other  vegetable  or  salad  are  enough  for  all 
ordinary  occasions.  Fruit  or  a  dessert  prepared  earlier 
in  the  day  completes  a  meal  sufficient  for  all  needs  of 
the  human  body  if  the  articles  have  been  chosen  wisely 
to  supplement  each  other. 


320 


FOOD  FOR  A  DAY. 


139 


For  a  noon  luncheon  or  night  supper  there  are  many 
variations  of  the  souffles,  hashes  and  scallops  already 
described.  One  of  these  with  bread  and  butter,  tea  or 
cocoa,  fruit  and  a  simple  sweet  will  provide  all  that  is 
essential. 

To  prepare  meals  for  a  family  year  in  and  out 
is  not  an  easy  task.  The  housekeeper  must  remember 
not  only  the  cost  and  nutritive  value  of  the  foods-  but 
the  whims  and  notions  of  her  family.  The  ability  of 
the  human  being  to  talk  makes  him  much  harder  to 
feed  than  the  animals  who  must  accept  the  balanced 
ration  bestowed  upon  them. 

A  few  points  to  be  observed  in  planning  menus  are 
these :  avoid  routine,  introduce  novelties,  cheap  or  ex- 
pensive, in  attractive  form,  but  say  little  of  nutritive 
value  or  cost.  Do  not  allow  the  same  meat  or  fish  to 
appear  too  many  meals  in  succession.  Let  some- 
thing else  intervene.  When  the  meat  course  is  sub- 
stantial let  the  dessert  be  light  and  make  the  dessert 
especially  nutritious  when  the  meat  course  is  insuf- 
ficient. Let  there  be  variety  on  the  table  through  the 
'week  or  month  but  have  few  dishes  at  each  meal. 

The  fundamental  processes  of  cookery  are  not  many 
and  the  essential  points  have  been  outlined  in  these 
pages.  An  intelligent  woman  can  adapt  the  recipes  in 
any  reliable  cook-book  to  her  Own  conditions  after  she 
knows  something  of  the  composition  of  foods  and  the 
way  each  is  affected  by  heat  and  moisture. 


Supper 


Planning 
Menus 


In 
Conclusion 


321 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY.       . 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Boston  Cooking  School  Cook  Book  ($2.00).     Fannie  M.  Farmer. 
Boston  Cook  Book  ($2.00).     Mary  J.  Lincoln. 
Catering  for  Two  ($1.25).     Alice  J.  James. 
'Century  Cook  Book  ($2.00).     Mary  Roland. 
Home  Science  Cook  Book  ($1.00).     Anna  Barrows  and  Mary 

J.  Lincoln. 

Kitchen  Companion  ($2.50).     Maria  Parloa. 
Practical  Cooking  and  Serving  ($2.00).     Janet  M.  Hill. 
Practical  Sanitary  and  Economic  Cooking  ($0.40).    M.  H.  Abel. 
Young  Housekeeper  ($1.00).     Maria  Parloa. 
Rorer's  (Mrs.)  Ne*w  Cook  Book  ($2.00).     Mrs.  S.  T.  Rorer. 
Easiest  Way  in  Housekeeping  and  Cooking  ($1.00).       Helen 

Campbell. 

Hostess  of  To-day  ($1.50).     Linda  Hull  Lamed. 
Luncheons  ($1.40).     Mary  Roland. 

Note. — These  books  may  be  borrowed  by  Members.     Any  one  may  pur- 
chase them  through  the  School  by  sending  price. 

GOVERNMENT  BULLETINS 

Free,  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

34.  Meats:     Composition  and  Cooking — Charles  D.  Woods. 

85.  Fish  as  Food— C.  F.  Langworthy,  Ph.D. 

93.  Sugar  as  Food — Mary  Hinman  Abel. 

121.  Beans,  Peas  and  other  Legumes  as  Food — M.  H.  Abel. 

128.  Eggs  and  their  uses  as  Foods — C.  F.  Langworthy,  Ph.D. 

182.  Poultry  as  Food— Helen  W.  Atwater. 

183.  Meat  on  the  Farm — Andrew  Boss. 

203.  Canned  Fruits,  Preserves  and  Jellies — Parloa. 

249.  Cereal  Breakfast  Foods — Woods  and  Snyder. 

256.  Preparation  of  Vegetables  for  the  Table — Parloa. 

263.  Use  of  Milk  as  Food— R.  S.  Milner. 

293.  Use  of  Fruits  as  Food— C.  F.  Langworthy. 

295.  Potato  and  other  Root  Crops  as  Food — Langworthy. 

298.  Food  Value  of  Corn  and  Corn  Products. 

332.  Nuts  and  their  use  as  Food— M.  E.  Jaffa. 

359.  Canning  Vegetables  in  the  Home — J.  F.  Breazeale. 

375.  Care  of  Food  in  the  Home — Mary  Hinman  Abel. 

389.  Bread  and  Bread  Making— Helen  W.  Atwater. 

391.  Economical  use  of  Meats  in  the  Home — Hunt 


322 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY 

PART  III. 


Read  Carefully.  Place  your  name  and  address  on  the 
first  sheet  of  the  test.  Use  a  light  grade  of  paper  and  write 
on  one  side  of  the  sheet  only.  Do  not  copy  answers  from 
the  lesson  paper.  Use  your  own  words,  so  that  the  instruc- 
tor may  know  that  you  understand  the  subject.  Read  the 
lesson  paper  a  number  of  times  before  attempting  to 
answer  the  questions. 


1.  Mention  and  describe  three  methods  of  making 

doughs  light. 

2.  What  are  the  advantages  in  the  use  of  baking 

powder  ?  When  should  baking  soda  and  cream 
of  tartar  be  used  separately? 

3.  Describe    some    mixture   where   more    than    one 

means  of  making  it  light  is  used. 

4.  How  does  the  bread  obtainable  outside  your  home 

compare  with  what  you  can  produce  there  as 
to  cost,  including  time  and  fuel,  substance,  and 
palatability  ? 

5.  Experiment,  if  you  can,  under  your  own  condi- 

tions and  report  of  the  effect  of  too  rapid  and 
too  slow  baking  on  different  types  of  dough. 

6.  Rearrange  this  recipe  for  a  simple  cake  in  proper 

proportions  and  order  of  mixing:  J/£  egg,  2 
teaspoonfuls  butter,  2  c.  milk,  I  c.  flavoring,  I 
teasp.  flour,  3  c.  baking  powder,  I  teasp.  sugar. 


323 


PRINCIPLES    OF    COOKERY. 

7.  Give  examples  wherein  the  form  and  manner  of 

serving  may  add  to  the  attractiveness  of  food 
and  not  require  too  much  time. 

8.  How  does  bread  flour  differ  from  pastry  flour? 

How  does  this  affect  its  use  in  doughs  ? 

9.  Give  the  general  proportion  of  flour  and  liquid 

in   (i)   soft  doughs,   (2)   a  batter,   (3)   muffin 

mixtures,  (4)  pastry  or  cookies. 
10.     Why  does  shortening  make  doughs  flaky? 
M.     Give  the  one  method   of  making  bread.     What 

conditions  will  hasten  the  process ;  what  will 

retard  the  process? 
.     Successful  pastry — how  made? 

13.  What  varieties  of  cake  are  there  and  what  ai 

th£  general  proportion  of  the  ingredients  ?  Give 
some  of  the  reasons  why  a  cake  "falls  ?"  What 
makes  cake  dry  and  coarse  in  texture? 

14.  Discuss  the  use  and  abuse  of  "fancy  cookery." 

15.  What  is  meant  by  contrast  in  foods?     Give  ex- 

amples. 

1 6.  What  can  you  say  of  flavoring? 

17.  How  may  "left-overs"  of  meat — of  vegetables — 

of  bread,  be  used? 

1 8.  On  what  principle  should  menus  be  planned? 

19.  Give   the  menus   for  the  meals   served   in   your 

household  during  one  week  and  suggest  how 
they  might  be  improved  without  additional  la- 
bor or  expense. 


324 


•       SUPPLEMENT 

PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY 

IN 

APPLICATION   TO   DAILY  LIFE 

BY  ANNA  BARROWS 

Director,  Chautauqua  School  of  Cookery;  Lecturer,  Teachers, 
College,  Columbia  University,  and  Simmons  College. 

The  conditions  of  life  in  the  households  represented 
by  the  pupils  of  this  school  vary  greatly  with  locality 
and  climate,  and,  taken  together,  would  give  a  fine 
composite  picture  of  the  average  American  home. 

While  reading  the  hundreds  of  papers  which  have 
passed  through  my  hands  since  the  School  opened, 
nothing  has  impressed  me  more  than  the  variety  of 
conditions  to  which  any  woman  in  this  country 
must  be  ready  to  adjust  herself  at  short  notice. 
Much  human  energy  might  be  set  free  for  other  pur- 
poses, and  much  money  saved,  if  men  and  women 
gave  closer  study  to  some  of  these  e very-day  questions. 

Emerson  has  said  truly :  ' '  We  must  learn  the  homely 
laws  of  fire  and  water;  we  must  feed,  wash,  plant, 
build.  These  are  the  ends  of  necessity,  and  first 
in  the  order  of  nature.  Poverty,  frost,  famine, 
disease,  debt,  are  the  beadles  and  guardsmen  that 
hold  us  to  common  sense." 

COMPARATIVE  VALUE  OF  FUELS 

Every  householder  and  housekeeper  should  have 
more  definite  knowledge  regarding  the  amount  of 
heat  available  from  a  given  bulk  of  each  of  the  stand  - 


325 


148  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY 

ard  fuels.  One  cord  of  wood  is  approximately  equal 
to  one-half  ton  of  coal;  1,000  cubic  feet  of  coal-gas 
is  equal  to  50  or  60  pounds  of  coal,  or  about  four  and 
one-half  gallons  of  oil  or  gasoline.  The  time  re- 
quired to  keep  stove  and  fire  in  good  condition  must 
be  counted  with  the  cost  of  the  fuel. 

Irr  this  connection,  facts  reported  in  some  of  the 
test  papers  received  are  interesting. 

From  a  southern  plantation,  wood  is  reported  as 
costing  only  the  labor  of  preparation  for  the  stove, 
and  that  only  sixty  cents  a  cord.  In  another  locality, 
one  sixteenth  of  a  cord  of  wood  is  used  daily  at  a  cost 
of  twelve  cents,  or  about  two  dollars  a  cord.  Else- 
where, a  housekeeper  finds  wood  at  five  dollars  a 
cord  the  cheapest  fuel  within  her  reach,  and  estimates 
her  daily  supply  to  cost  ten  cents,  or  about  one  fiftieth 
of  a  cord.  Another  burns  a  cord  of  wood  each  week 
for  cooking  only. 

An  English  pupil  writes:  "The  range  to  which  I 
am  most  accustomed  is  the  almost  universal  farm- 
house open  fireplace  and  Glendenning  oven,  used  in 
Cumberland  and  Westmoreland.  The  oven  is  heated 
by  the  hot  air  from  the  fire  by  a  passage  at  the  back 
of  the  fireplace,  with  only  one  damper  for  oven.  At 
the  opposite  side  there  is  nearly  always  what  is  called 
here  a  'set-pot'  for  heating  water.  The  heat  of 
my  oven  is  greatest  at  the  bottom,  on  account  of  the 
hot  air  being  underneath.  What  is  not  cooked  in 
the  oven  is  done  over  the  open  fire." 


326 


FUELS      .  149 

COAL 

The  price  of  coal  varies  according  to  quality  and 
distance  from  the  mines,  and  may  cost  from  three  to 
twelve  dollars  a  ton.  A  hodful  or  scuttle  of  coal 
may  weigh  from  fifteen  to  thirty  pounds,  but  after 
weighing  the  contents  of  an  average  hod,  any  house- 
keeper may  estimate  readily  the  amount  used  daily, 
or  for  different  purposes. 

One  woman  writes  that  she  can  do  her  day's  work 
with  a  single  hodful  of  coal,  making  a  ton  last  nearly 
three  months,  while  a  maid  in  her  kitchen  usually 
disposes  of  a  ton  a  month.  Another  housekeeper 
runs  a  fire  day  and  night  on  half  a  ton  a  month, 
while  in  a  colder  region  three  hods  daily  is  the  usual 
winter  allowance. 

GAS 

Gas  is  available  in-  comparatively  few  sections  of 
the  country  outside  of  the  large  cities,  but  wherever 
it  is  used,  housekeepers  soon  learn  to  plan  their  cook- 
ery to  save  fuel.  This  usually  results  in  economy 
of  time,  so  that  fewer  hours  are  spent  in  the  kitchen, 
though  all  the  necessary  work  is  as  well  done  as 
before. 

A  thousand  feet  of  gas  a  week  is  a  generous  allow- 
ance for  kitchen  use  in  an  average  family.  Accord- 
ing to  one  report,  gas  at  $1.50  a  thousand  feet  has 
proved  cheaper  than  coal  at  $5.00  a  ton. 

One  cannot  use  a  gas  range  in  the  same  fashion  as 
the  wood  or  coal  stove,  but  must  adapt  herself  to  its 


327 


150  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY 

plan  and  the  nature  of  the  fuel.  A  steam  cooker 
makes  it  possible  to  cook  enough  food  for  two  days 
over  one  burner  at  one  time.  Today's  dinner,  a 
cereal  for  tomorrow's  breakfast,  some  cup  custards 
for  supper,  a  stuffed  fowl  to  be  browned  over  in  the 
oven  for  tomorrow's  dinner,  all  may  be  cooking  at 
once. 

Then,  with  the  ovens  as  commonly  arranged,  we 
may  broil  or  roast  beneath  the  flame  which  is  heating 
the  other  oven  to  bake  potatoes,  bread  or  cake. 

One  pupil  reports  that  she  boils  potatoes  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  double  boiler  while  cooking  cereal 
for  the.  next  day,  and  above  that  sets  a  basin  of  milk 
to  heat  for  a  pudding  or  sauce  or  soup.  By  such 
forethought  the  expense  of  gas  is  no  greater  than 
any  other  fuel,  and  the  labor  of  housework  is  much 
reduced. 

ALCOHOL 

The  removal  of  the  tax  on  fuel  alcohol,  January, 
1907,  may  mean  much  to  the  housekeeper  as  well  as 
to  the  manufacturer.  Every  one  who  has  used  a 
chafing  dish  or  alcohol  lamp  has  wished  that  alcohol 
was  as  cheap  as  kerosene.  Under  the  new  law  it 
may  reach  that  point. 

Since  it  may  be  made  of  many  coarse  and  inferior 
vegetable  products  now  unused,  there  need  be  no 
lack  of  this  fuel,  which  is  practically  without  odor  or 
smoke. 

Thus  the  housekeeper  must  be  ready  to  adapt  her- 


328 


FUELS  151 

self  to  another  change  in  fuels  and  apparatus  for  its 
use. 

With  the  alcohol  lamp  and  the  hay-box  much  of 
the  discomfort  and  dirt  now  associated  with  kitchen 
processes  will  be  banished,  never  to  return,  and  the 
kitchen  itself  well  may  be  dignified  with  the  name  of 
"laboratory." 

KEROSENE 

The  small  oil  and  gasoline  stoves  are  not  used  as 
much  as  they  deserve.  With  intelligent  care  and 
high-grade  oil,  a  well-made  oil  stove  is  safe.  Fire  in 
any  form  is  not  a  plaything. 

Every  household  without  gas  or  electricity  should 
be  supplied  with  a  good  three-burner  lamp  stove  and 
small  oven  to  fit  it.  These  will  cost  about  $3  .  oo.  If 
this  lamp  is  given  the  same  care  that  is  given  lamps 
for  evening  use,  results  will  be  satisfactory.  But 
one  must  not  expect  a  small  stove  to  work  as  rapidly 
or  accomplish  as  much  as  a  larger  one.  Have  the 
lamp  full  of  oil  to  do  good  work.  Do  not  let  it  burn 
many  hours  in  succession,  but  give  it  a  chance  to 
cool  off.  Keep  the  wicks  even  and  clean,  and  have 
new  ones  when  they  become  discolored,  or  too  short 
to  reach  the  bottom  of  the  lamp. 

Oil  stoves  are  liable  to  smoke  if  they  stand  in  a 
draft,  and  therefore  should  be  protected.  Choose 
utensils  to  fit  the  stove  and  oven,  and  never  fill  them 
so  full  that  there  is  danger  of  boiling  over  into  the 
lamp.  Since  the  heat  is  greatest  in  the  lower  part  of 


329 


152  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY 

the  oven,  cook  on  the  upper  shelf  as  much  as  possible, 
or  exchange  when  possible.  Asbestos  mats  may  be 
used  on  the  lower  shelves.  With  two  three-burner 
lamp  stoves,  and  an  oven  to  fit  one,  it  has  been  easy 
several  times,  in  my  own  experience,  to  do  all  the 
cooking  for  a  family  of  six  or  eight  persons. 

FIRELESS  COOKERS 

The  Norwegian  Cooking  Box  or  Fireless  Cook 
Stove  is  described  and  illustrated  on  pages  12-13. 
This  device  has  been  exploited  so  much  of  late  that 
it  deserves  further  description. 

The  new  interest  in  this  method  of  cooking  is  prob- 
ably due  to  the  experiments  made  in  1905,  under  the 
direction  of  the  Commissary-General  of  the  War 
Department,  and  these  were  the  result  of  a  report 
from  United  States  Consular  Clerk,  George  H. 
Murphy,  of  Frankfort,  Germany.  Below  is  a  con- 
densation of  Mr.  Murphy's  report,  as  it  appeared  in 
Daily  Consular  Reports  in  April,  1905. 

"In  an  address  to  an  audience  of  working  people, 
Mrs.  Back,  wife  of  the  director  of  the  industrial 
school  at  Frankfort,  brought  to  the  attention  of  her 
hearers,  the  hay -box  or  fireless  stove. 

"Every  housewife  knows  that  a  pot  of  coffee  can 
be  kept  hot  for  some  time,  without  fire,  simply  by 
wrapping  it  in  a  dry  towel  to  hinder  escape  of  heat. 
The  Norwegian  "automatic  kitchen"  attracted  at- 
tention at  the  Paris  exposition  of  1867  but  failed  to 
come  into  general  use.  Now  in  Berlin,  Munich,  and 


* 
EIRELESS  COOKER  153 

other  cities  popular  lecturers  are  showing  the  prac- 
tical value  of  this  method  of  cooking. 

"Mrs  Back  stated  that  she  had  used  the  hay-box 
for  thirteen  years,  thus  greatly  reducing  the  cares  of 
housekeeping.  At  first  she  used  the  box  merely  to 
keep  finished  food  warm.  Discovering  that  the 
process  of  cooking  continued,  she  experimented  and 
found  that  she  could  finish,  in  the  box,  all  boiled 
and  roasted  meats,  sauces,  fish,  soup,  vegetables, 
fruits,  puddings,  etc. 

"The  box  cannot  be  used  for  articles  whose  chief 
attraction  lies  in  the  crispness  resulting  from  rapid 
cooking  on  a  hot  fire,  but  the  rest  of  the  meal  may 
be  ready  and  hot  in  the  box.  Patience  will  secure 
needed  experience,  and  remove  all  doubts.  In 
general,  two  or  three  minutes  actual  boiling  on  the 
fire  is  sufficient  for  vegetables,  while  roasted  meat 
requires  twenty  to  thirty  minutes.  Most  articles 
should  remain  tightly  closed  in  the  box  for  two  or 
three  hours,  and  may  be  left  to  keep  hot  for  ten  or 
twelve  hours. 

"Dried  legumes,  fruit,  etc.,  should  be  well  soaked 
in  cold  water,  allowed  to  boil  two  to  five  minutes  and 
left  for  two  hours  in  the  box.  Soft  vegetables  should 
be  merely  brought  to  a  boil  and  then  placed  for  an 
hour  or  two  in  the  box.  Soups  are  improved  by 
being  allowed  to  develop  for  two  or  three  hours  in 
the  box. 

"Covers  of  pots  should  not  be  lifted  when  they 


331 


154  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY 

are  being  transferred.  The  object  is  to  retain  the 
heat  as  long  as  possible  when  it  has  once  been  de- 
veloped. Too  much  water  is  better  than  too  little. 

"A  home-made  hay -box  will  usually  be  found 
cheaper  and  more  practical  than  those  with  immovable 
felt  and  upholstery.  Almost  any  box  will  do,  which 
has  a  tight  cover.  The  wood  should  not  be  too  thin, 
and  there  should  be  no  knot-holes  or  cracks.  Old 
trunks  and  valises  may  sometimes  be  used  in  this 
way. 

"The  box  should  be  loosely  filled  with  shavings, 
paper  or  hay,  the  last  being  probably  most  satis- 
factory. The  hay  should  be  renewed  every  two  or 
three  weeks.  Nests  are  made  for  the  pots  and  the 
hay  packed  tightly  under  and  around  them.  Any 
kind  of  pots  can  be  used,  although,  of  course,  earthen 
ones  hold  the  heat  best.  The  tighter  the  tops  fit, 
the  better,  but  if  the  food  is  to  be  used  within  six 
or  eight  hours,  they  need  not  be  hermetically  closed. 
When  the  pots  have  been  placed  in  the  box  carefully, 
without  lifting  the  lids,  they  sh6uld  be  covered  with 
a  pillow  and  the  lid  at  once  securely  closed. 

"When  not  in  use,  the  box  should  always  be  left 
open  and  the  hay  loosened,  the  pillow  being  hung 
in  the  air  to  dry  thoroughly. 

"The  chief  advantages  of  the  hay-box  may  be 
summarized  as  follows: 

"The  cost  of  fuel  can  be  reduced  four-fifths  or 
even  nine-tenths. 


332 


FIRELESS  COOKER  155 

"The  pots  are  not  made  difficult  to  wash;  they 
are  not  blackened,  and  they  will  last  for  an  almost 
indefinite  period  of  time. 

"The  food  is  better  cooked,  more  tasty,  more 
nutritious  and  more  digestible. 

"Kitchen  .odors  are  obviated. 

"Time  and  labor  are  saved. 

"There  is  no  need  of  stirring,  no  fear  of  scorching 
or  burning. 

"The  cares  of  the  housewife  are  lessened,  and  her 
health  and  happiness  are  protected. 

"The  kitchen  need  not  be  in  disorder  half  of  the  day. 

"Warm  water  can  always  be  had  when  there  is 
illness  in  the  house  and  during  the  summer  when 
fires  are  not  kept  up. 

"Where  workmen's  families  live  crowded  in  one 
or  two  rooms,  the  additional  suffering  caused  by 
kitchen  heat  is  obviated  by  the  hay -box,  for  the  pre- 
liminary cooking  can  all  be  done  in  the  cool  of  the 
morning. 

"At  picnics  the  appetites  of  young  people  are  only 
half  satisfied  by  sandwiches  and  other  cold  food. 
The  hay-box  can  furnish  a  hot  meal  anywhere  at 
any  time. 

"Similarly,  men  and  women  working  in  the  fields, 
or  having  night  employment,  can  take  with  them 
hot  coffee,  soup  or  an  entire  meal,  thus  avoiding  the 
necessity  of  returning  home  at  a  fixed  hour  or  having 
it  brought  to  them  by  another  member  of  the  family. 


333 


156  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY 

''When  different  employments  make  it  necessary 
for  the  various  members  of  a  family  to  take  their 
meals  at  different  hours,  this  can  be  arranged  with- 
out a  multiplication  of  work  with  the  assistance  of 
the  hay -box." 

This  consular  report  covered  the  ground  so  fully 
that  any  intelligent  woman  can  make  it  the  basis  of 
experiments  adapted  to  her  own  surroundings. 

A  small  trunk  measuring  18x22x24  inches,  an 
agate-ware  kettle  with  close  tin  cover,  made  to  order 
to  fit  in,  or  merely  rest  on  the  kettle,  were  the  appli- 
ances which  served  me  satisfactorily  this  summer. 

It  was  not  easy  to  secure  hay,  so  we  looked  about 
for  a  similar  non-conducting  substance,  and  found 
some  boxes  of  excelsior  and  sawdust  —  not  quite 
enough  of  either,  so  they  were  combined  and  put 
in  bags  and  sewed  up  closely  enough  to  prevent  clut- 
ter. The  most  of  the  bags  were  of  denim,  but  some 
thin  cotton  bags,  in  which  five  and  ten  pounds  of 
sugar  had  come,  were  filled,  and  did  good  service  in 
filling  chinks. 

To  test  the  heat- retaining  capacity  of  this  outfit, 
two  gallons  of  water  was  raised  to  the  boiling  point 
in  the  kettle.  Closely  covered,  it  was  placed  on  one 
of  the  thicker  cushions  in  the  trunk  and  the  others 
fitted  in  closely  around  and  over  the  kettle.  A 
blanket  and  some  newspapers  were  spread  over  all, 
and  the  trunk  locked.  Twenty-four  hours  later  the 
water  was  hot  enough  for  dish-washing  or  bathing. 


334 


FIRELESS  COOKER  157 

The  statements  made  in  the  above  report  were 
fully  verified  by  my  own  experience.  This  method 
of  cooking  is  especially  adapted  to  any  article  requir- 
ing long,  gentle  heat,  such  as  the  making  of  soup- 
stocks  and  broths  and  rendering  tough  meats  tender. 
With  very  tough  fowls,  when  the  water  cools  down 
below  150-160°  F.,  the  whole  may  again  be  raised  to 
the  boiling  point  and  started  again  in  the  hay-box. 

It  must  not  be  expected  to  do  everything,  but 
every  housekeeper  who  must  depend  upon  a  gas  or 
kerosene  stove  should  arrange  a  fireless  cooker  for 
economy  of  fuel  and  to  increase  her  own  comfort. 

Many  an  American  housewife  uses  both  coal  and 
gas  ranges  in  her  winter  home,  and  in  the  summer 
cottage  must  depend  upon  wood  and  kerosene  stoves. 
Probably  during  the  year  she  also  uses  a  chafing-dish 
occasionally,  and  that  may  derive  its  heat  from  alcor 
hoi  or  electricity.  Wherever  a  house  is  supplied 
with  electric  lights  there  should  be  at  least  one  elec- 
trical cooking  appliance.  Some  excellent  ones  are 
already  on  the  market,  and  the  next  generation,  doubt- 
less, will  use  this  force  in  housekeeping  as  freely  as 
we  use  gas. 

Each  of  these  methods  of  securing  heat  for  cooking 
may  be  the  best  under  certain  conditions  and  have 
disadvantages  under  others.  The  housekeeper  needs 
to  be  keen  in  judgment  anct  quick  to  see  in  order  to 
adapt  her  formulas  of  cookery  successfully  in  turn 
to  wood,  coal,  gas,  kerosene,  gasoline,  alcohol  or 


335 


158  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY 

electricity.  She  must  know  how  to  tell  when  a  thing 
is  "done,"  and  not  trust  wholly  to  the  number  of 
minutes  prescribed  in  a  recipe. 

Women  who  are  called  upon  to  make  such  rapid 
transitions  become  adaptable,  inventive,  and  are 
less  "set  in  their  ways"  in  other  directions.  The 
study  of  processes  of  cookery  may  thus  become  a 
broadening  influence  and  means  of  general  education. 

CO-OPERATIVE  COOKING 

But  there  are  certain  household  traditions  which 
hold  many  intelligent  women  in  a  firm  grasp,  and 
these  traditions  may  be  traced  to  the  generations 
behind  us,  when  no  money  value  was  placed  upon 
woman's  labor.  It  does  not  yet  seem  easy  for 
women  to  count  fairly  the  cost  of  foods  cooked 
under  their  own  roof.  Until  this  can  be  done  there 
is  small  chance  for  co-operative  industries,  which 
might  relieve  the  pressure  of  home  cares  where  house- 
workers  are  not  readily  secured. 

Few  families  to-day  find  it  wise  to  make  butter 
for  themselves,  and  many  would  do  well  to  buy 
bread,  also.  When  there  is  a  demand  for  high-grade 
bread  made  outside  the  home,  it  will  be  supplied,  as 
has  been  the  case  here  with  other  commodities,  and 
with  bread  in  other  countries.  There  are  many 
small  towns  to-day  to  which  bread  is  sent  from  first- 
class  bakeries  100  to  200  miles  away. 

With  stronger  laws,  better  enforced  for  the  clean- 
liness and  purity  of  food  products;  with  greater 


336 


KITCHEN  FURNISHINGS  1 59 

intelligence  on  the  part  of  the  consumer,  and  greater 
skill  on  the  part  of  the  producer,  there  is  no  reason 
why  we  should  not  in  the  future  be  able  to  secure 
wholesome  prepared  foods  of  all  grades  at  fair  prices 
outside  the  home,  rather  than  attempt  to  prepare 
everything  under  the  home  roof. 

The  isolated  home  must  still  be  its  own^  factory, 
and  its  director  must  be  a  Jack  of  all  Trades.  Such 
households  should  be  supplied  with  all  helps  to  make 
labor  easy,  but  even  then,  much  hard  labor  is  neces- 
sary. Only  where  large  quantities  of  any  product 
are  to  be  prepared  does  it  pay  to  have  all  manner  of 
machines  and  cunning  devices  to  produce  the  most 
perfect  results. 

KITCHEN  FURNISHINGS 

Where  many  people  are  to  be  fed,  a  few  good  tools 
like  a  bread-mixer  (Seep.  105),  meat-chopper,  etc., 
are  often  more  helpful  than  another  pair  of  hands, 
unless  they  are  especially  efficient  ones. 

One  pupil  has  asked  for  a  list  of  necessary  kitchen 
furnishings.  A  good  list  is  given  in  Household  Man- 
agement, page  105.  Here  is  another  designed  for 
beginners  in  housekeeping,  or  for  small  families  living 
in  city  flats,  where  there  is  no  room  to  store  super- 
fluous utensils.  The  stove  and  refrigerator  are  usu- 
ally supplied  with  such  apartments. 

For  light  housekeeping,  where  a  chafing-dish  or 
small  oil  or  gas  stove  is  the  only  means  for  cooking, 
still  fewer  utensils  would  suffice.  With  the  addition 


337 


KITCHEN  FURNISHINGS 


161 


of  a  few  fancy  molds,  all  the  foods  illustrated  in  this 
book  could  be  prepared  by  the  utensils  here  men- 
tioned. On  page  101  some  of  the  most  useful  are 
shown. 

When  selecting  any  utensil,  be  sure  that  it  is  of 
good  quality,  with  no  imperfections  that  will  inter- 
fere with  keeping  it  perfectly  clean. 

KITCHEN    FURNISHINGS. 


High  stool $i .  50 

Scales i  .00 

Fibre  pail .50 

Dish  pan .50 

Soap  shaker .10 

Dish  mop .10 

Vegetable  brush .10 

Tea  kettle i .  oo 

Pastry  board 40 

Rolling  pin .10 

Chopping  bowl  and 

knife 50 

Bean  pot 30 

Lemon  squeezer(glassj  .  10 

Tea  pot 25 

Coffee  pot 50 

Muffin  pan, agate  ware  .50 

Quart  measure .35 

Pitcher .50 

Stew  kettle  and  cover,  i .  oo 

Roasting  pan .50 

Sauce  pans  (three)  .  .  .75 

Bowls  (two) .50 

Double  boiler .75 

Two  quart  pans  (two)  .  50 
Deep  plates,  to  fit  pan 

as  covers  (two) 50 

Cups  for  moulds  (six)  .  75 


French  knife .50 

Paring  knives  (two) .  .        .30 

Spatula .30 

Cork  screw .25 

Can  opener .50 

Measure     cups,     glass 

and  tin .20 

Wire  egg  beater .10 

Dover  egg  beater .10 

Fine  strainer .05 

Coarse  strainer. .10 

Colander 20 

Flour  sieve .20 

Wire  potato  masher.  .         .10 

Grater .10 

Wooden  spoons  (two)        .  20 

Tablespoons  (six) 20 

Teaspoons  (six) 10 

Long  fork 10 

Cutters  (two) 20 

Omelet  pan .25 

Loaf  pans  (three) ....  .60 
Cake  pans  (three) ....  .30 
Cake  pans  (three) ....  .30 

Scotch  bowl .50 

Glass  jars  (one  dozen),      i .  oo 


Total $20.00 


339 


162  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY 

THE  HOUSEKEEPER'S  LIBRARY 

Quite  as  important  as  helpful  utensils  to  the  house- 
keeper are  the  right  kind  of  books. 

When  we  remember  that  cooking  -schools  have 
been  established  for  a  generation  in  all  our  large  cit 
and  that  the  lessons  given  in  such  schools  ru, ,  e  in 
several  places  been  put  in  book  form,  and  when  we 
see  the  lists  of  cook-books  sent  out  by  publishers,  we 
might  suppose  that  every  housekeeper  in  America 
would  be  the  possessor  of  several  reliable  cook-books. 
But  even  the  intelligent  women  taking  this  course 
are  rarely  well  supplied. 

One  pupil  honestly  states  the  matter  thus : 

"My  failures  have  been  many,  owing  partly  to  my 
lack  of  a  cook-book.  I  have  overcooked  custards, 
and  undercooked  corn  starch.  I  have  stirred  and 
beaten  all  the  gas  out  of  pancakes,  and  wondered  why 
they  did  not  rise,  etc.,  etc." 

Many  women  everywhere  are  content  to  depend 
upon  cook-books  issued  by  patent  medicine  venders, 
and  upon  newspaper  clippings  liable  to  typographical 
errors.  Such  things  may  afford  helpful  suggestions, 
but  much  food-material  has  been  wasted  by  blind 
following  of  careless  printers,  and  writers  who  have 
little  knowledge  of  the  art  and  science  of  cookery. 

Enterprising  business  men  realize  that  they  must 
read  their  trade  journals  to  keep  abreast  of  the  tide 
of  competition.  Many  a  woman  spends  more  than  a 
dollar  a  year  for  tissue  paper  patterns  for  clothing, 


340 


HOUSEKEEPER'S  LIBRARY  163 

who  would  hesitate  to  buy  a  cook-book  once  in  five 
years,  or  to  subscribe  for  a  reliable  household  maga- 
zine. 

There  has  been  little  cash  recompense  for  the 
^  ise keeper,  however^  much  she  studied  her  trade, 
but  now  we  are  beginning  to  realize  that  personal 
health  and  family  comfort  are  above  price;  that  they 
depend  chiefly  on  the  air  we  breathe,  the  water  we 
drink,  and  the  food  we  eat. 

On  page  140  of  this  hand-book,  there  is  given  a 
list  of  reliable  books  relating  to  food  and  cookery, 
the  whole  costing  about  $20.  The  average  American 
housekeeper,  especially  if  she  does  her  own  house- 
work, should  own  at  least  half  of  these  books.  While 
she  may  not  find  it  feasible  to  spend  more  than  a 
dollar  a  year  in  this  way,  still  she  may  be  sure  that 
ten  dollars  spent  in  the  purchase  of  helpful  books 
would  save  more  than  that  amount,  in  a  single  year, 
in  her  bills  for  food  materials. 

Any  one  near  a  public  library  has  the  opportunity 
to  read  such  books,  and  thus  discover  which  are  the 
ones  she  wishes  to  own.  If  the  library  is  not  already 
supplied  in  this  direction,  send  in  requests  that  cer- 
tain books  be  purchased.  (Any  of  the  books  will 
be  loaned  to  members  by  the  School). 

The  study  of  this  hand-book  lays  the  foundations 
in  the  fewest  words  possible  for  the  fundamental 
processes  of  cookery.  As  one  pupil  has  expressed  it: 
"I  have  found  the  lessons  wonderfully  helpful  in 


341 


CARD  CATALOG  OF  FOODS 

classifying  and  fixing  facts  in  my  mind,  and  I  feel 
that  I  am  much  better  grounded  in  the  principles  of 
cookery  than  I  ever  should  have  been  by  merely 
studying  cook-books." 

After  such  a  beginning,  each  one  reading  a  cook- 
book will  instinctively  select  arid  add  to  the  founda- 
tion principles,  already  acquired,  such  explanatory 
details  as  are  best  adapted  to  her  home  conditions. 

CARD  CATALOG  OF  FOODS 

The  up-to-date  housekeeper  is  ready  to  accept 
modern  ideas  and  adapt  methods  from  other  depart- 
ments of  life  to  her  business  of  housekeeping.  She 
finds  a  card  catalogue  one  of  the  simplest  means  for 
keeping  addresses,  and  has  another  for  an  inventory 
of  her  household  possessions,  and  a  third  for  a  list  of 
foods  especially,  suited  to  her  family.  In  this  list 
each  card  records  not  only  the  name  of  a  food,  but 
the  approximate  beginning  and  end  of  its  season,  its 
average  price,  the  quantity  required  to  serve  a  given 
number  of  persons,  and  several  of  the  best  methods 
of  using  it.  Here,  also,  may  be  references  to  certain 
pages  of  the  cook-books  in  her  library.  Or  the  cards 
may  have  copies  of  the  recipes;  such  cards  should 
have  a  hole  in  the  top,  so  that  they  may  be  hung  up 
in  the  kitchen  within  view  of  the  worker. 

When  uncertain  what  to  chose  for  the  next  day's 
dinner,  or  for  some  special  occasion,  she  looks  over 
these  cards,  and  several  possibilities  will  be  suggested . 
From  this  plan  one  naturally  comes  to  the  study  of 
dietaries  and  an  application  of  the  principles  laid 
down  in  Food  and  Dietetics. 


342 


COOKING  A  FINE  ART  167 

Among  the  helps  in  study  along  these  lines  are  the 
series  of  dietary  studies  which  have  been  issued  from 
time  to  time  by  the  office  of  Experiment  Stations, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.  Two  of  the  best  to  begin  with  are  Bulletin 
28  (Revised),  "The  Chemical  Composition  of  American 
Food  Materials"  (5  cents),  and  Bulletin  129,  "Dietary 
Studies  in  Boston,  Springfield,  Philadelphia,  Chicago" 
(10 cents).  The  latter  gives  menus  for  several  days  at 
different  prices,  with  itemized  list  of  materials  used 
and  cost  of  each. 

These  may  be  obtained  by  sending  coin  to  the  Su- 
perintendent of  Documents,  Washington,  D.  C. 

COOKERY  A  FINE  ART 

In  cookery,  quite  as  much  depends  upon  the  order 
and  manner  of  combining  the  materials  as  upon  the 
ingredients  themselves.  The  manipulation  of  the 
cook-stove  has  something  in  common  with  that  of 
a  musical  instrument.  It  is  possible  to  play  by  ear 
with  little  knowledge  of  scales  and  chords,  or  to  cook 
without  knowing  the  laws  of  heat  or  the  chemical 
composition  of  food  materials. 

Or,  by  continual  practice,  a  single  composition 
may  be  committed  to  memory  and  be  reproduced  in 
a  mechanical  fashion  either  upon  the  piano  or  on  the 
kitchen  range.  Only  after  much  study  and  repetition 
of  processes  does  one  become  able  to  interpret  intel- 
ligently the  works  of  great  masters,  and  the  funda- 
mental laws  of  harmony  must  be  known,  before  one 


343 


CAKE  MAKING  169 

can  produce  new  creations  either  in  music  or  more 
material  things. 

As  music  appeals  to  the  sense  of  hearing,  so  does 
cookery  to  that  of  taste.  The  truest  art  in  cookery 
is  not  the  ability  to  construct  wondrous  complica- 
tions of  food  materials,  or  to  carve  roses  from  beets, 
or  model  f.aces  in  butter,  but  rather  to  develop  the 
full  flavor  of  a  food  by  the  simplest  process,  to  make 
the  "mouth  water"-  — that  is,  to  stimulate  the  flow 
of  the  digestive  juices  by  savory  odors  and  flavors. 

Brillat  Savarin  well  said  that  the  invention  of  a 
new  dish  meant  more  happiness  to  the  human  race 
than  the  discovery  of  a  constellation,  but  quite  as 
important  is  the  constant  preparation  of  the  simple, 
old  foods  in  the  very  best  way  • —  the  baked  potato, 
the  boiled  egg,  the  broiled  steak,  etc.,  etc. 

CAKE  MAKING 

The  mixing  of  cake  often  has  more  to  do  with  its 
texture  than  the  proportion  of  materials  used,  though 
both  have  their  influence. 

It  is  an  interesting  experiment  to  make  a  good 
cooky  dough  and  bake  portions  of  it  with  different 
proportions  of  flour.  Take,  for  example,  the  familiar 
1-2-3-4  cake  formulas  and  transpose  the  flour  and 
eggs  so  that  we  use  one  cup  of  butter,  two  cups  of 
sugar,  three  eggs  and  four  cups  of  flour.  The  stiffness 
of  this  dough  will  vary  with  size  of  the  eggs  and  the 
quality  of  the  flour.  Often  some  liquid  and  more 
flour  are  added,  making  a  less  rich  mixture,  and  then 


345 


1 70  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY 

some  baking-powder  or  its  equivalent  will  be  needed, 
otherwise  the  creaming  of  the  butter  and  the  eggs 
will  bring  sufficient  air  into  the  dough. 

Even  before  all  the  flour  is  worked  in,  some  of  the 
dough  may  be  spread  on  a  tin  and  cut  in  shapes  after 
baking.  When  slightly  stifter,  bits  of  the  mixture 
may  be  dropped  on  the  tin,  fruit  or  nuts  put  over 
them,  and  they  will  spread  out  in  dainty  little  cakes. 

If  still  more  flour  is  added,  but  before  the  dough 
is  quite  firm  enough  to  use  a  .rolling-pin,  small  balls 
of  the  dough  may  be  shaped  round  with  the  hands 
and  flattened  on  the  pan  with  the  under  surface  of 
a  smooth  tin  cup. 

A  dough  in  this  stage  may  be  chilled,  and  then 
can  be  rolled  easily,  and  the  resulting  cakes  will  be 
much  richer  than  if  more  flour  had  been  worked  in. 

Deft,  experienced  hands  produce  satisfactory  results 
with  doughs,  because  they  can  shape  them  without 
working  in  an  excessive  amount  of  flour. 

MENU  MAKING 

Through  the  test  questions,  the  attention  of  our 
pupils  has  been  called  to  the  planning  of  meals  for 
a  household,  for  this  is  an  important  part  of  the  house- 
keeper's duties.  Under  Part  I  we  asked  for  menus 
introducing  as  many  dishes  as  feasible  containing 
milk  and  cheese.  Such  menus  would  be  useful  where 
the  meat  markets  were  poor,  and  milk  abundant, 
since  one  may  thus  secure  similar  nutritive  elements, 
and  usually  at  less  expense  than  for  meats. 


346 


MENU  MAKING  171 

After  Part  II,  the  request  was  made  for  a  menu 
for  two  days  when  eggs  were  cheap,  and  for  two  days 
more  when  they  were  expensive.  This  was  done 
because  few  housekeepers  pay  sufficient  attention  to 
market  prices.  They  get  the  idea  that  a  certain 
food  is  costly,  and  therefore  not  to  be  used  at  all, 
when,  perhaps,  a  careful  comparison  of  the  prices  of 
all  ingredients  would  show  it  to  be  cheap  at  some 
seasons.  Angel  and  sponge-cakes,  for  example,  when 
eggs  are  at  their  lowest  price,  are  less  expensive  than 
average  butter-cakes. 

With  eggs  at  25  cents  a  dozen  and  butter  at  25 
cents  a  pound,  a  sponge-cake  with  five  eggs  costs  no 
more  than  a  cake  with  two  eggs  and  half  a  cup  of 
butter.  If  the  whites  of  twice  as  many  eggs  are  used, 
the  actual  cost  is  no  greater,  since  the  yolks  are  avail- 
able for  other  purposes. 

At  the  close  of  the  lessons  we  asked  for  a  week's 
menu  from  each  householder  represented,  with  sug- 
gestions for  their  improvement,  without  increase  of 
labor  or  expense. 

The  responses  show  an  increased  attention  to  the 
details  that  count  in  feeding  a  family  satisfactorily 
to  all  concerned. 

Yet  menu-making  is  still  a  great  bugbear  to  many 
pupils,  and  a  few  more  hints  on  the  subject  may  be 
helpful. 

Many  are  hampered  seriously  by  the  habits  and 
wishes  of  different  members  of  their  households. 


347    • 


172  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY 

One  young  woman  writes:  "My  father  demands 
griddle  cakes  every  morning  the  year  round." 

Naturally,  with  such  tastes,  it  is  difficult  to  intro- 
duce many  new  dishes,  or  to  secure  a  very  varied 
menu. 

In  the  old  days  of  the  brick  oven,  most  of  the 
necessary  cooking  for  a  family  was  done  on  one  day 
of  the  week,  for  the  proper  heating  of  that  oven  could 
not  be  accomplished  hurriedly. 

Now  with"  the  gas  stove,  condition's  are  very  djf- 
ferent,  and  .two  or  three  hours  each  day  should  be 
ample  time  for  the  actual  cookery  for  an  average 
family.  But  to  accomplish  everything  in  these 
limits  wise  planning  is  required.  Whatever  requires 
long  cooking  for  breakfast,  must  be  started  the  pre- 
vious day,  and  preparation  for  the  dinner  or  luncheon 
is  begun  while  breakfast  is  being  made  ready,  and 
so  on. 

Many  business  women  keep  house  in  this  way, 
and  their  families  are  as  well  fed  as  those  where 
more  time  is  frittered  away  on  petty  nothings.  It 
is  only  by  application  of  business  methods  in  our 
kitchens,  that  the  routine  in  many  households  can 
be  simplified  and  untangled. 

The  preparation  of  food  for  an  average  household 
is  not  a  difficult  matter  when  the  manager  has 
learned  her  trade  and  each  individual  member  is  not 
unreasonable  in  his  or  her  requirements. 

The  housekeeper  must  think  out  her  plan  of  action 


348 


MENU  MAKING 


173 


for  days  in  advance  and  thus  save  unnecessary  dupli- 
cation of  processes. 

When  one  pair  of  hands  must  do  all  the  cooking, 
it  is  a  foolish  waste  of  time  and  strength  to  cook 
fresh  food  for  the  purpose  of  making  composite  dishes. 
Let  those  come  occasionally  as  an  easy  way  of  finishing 
up  some  bits  too  good  to  throw  away,  which  have 
already  appeared  in  other  forms.  For  example,  it 


Making  Timbale  Cases. 


takes  no  more  effort  or  fuel  to  boil  twelve  potatoes 
than  is  required  to  cook  six.  These  may  appear 
one  day  as  plain  boiled,  if  we  have  a  roast  with  a  good 
gravy.  The  next  day  we  are  to  serve  the  meat  cold 
or  perhaps  fried  fish  with  no  sauce,  so  the  second 
portion  of  potatoes  is  cut  in  cubes  or  slices  and 
reheated  in  butter,  flavored  with  onion,  and  sprinkled 
with  chopped  parsley  just  before  serving,  giving 
us  Lyonnaise  potatoes.  Or  we  might  prefer  Delmonico 
potatoes  and  put  them  in  layers  in  a  pudding  dish  with 


349 


MENU  MAKING  175 

a  sprinkle  of  cheese  between,  pour  a  thin  white 
sauce  over,  cover  with  buttered  crumbs,  and  heat 
through  in  the  oven.  Or  the  potatoes  may  be  mashed 
and  for  a  second  appearance  take  the  form  of  a  huge 
cone,  or  apples,  or  pears  for  individual  service. 

Sometimes  in  our  zeal  to  use  up  left-overs,  we 
expend  much  time  and  strength  and  more  additional 
material  than  the  value  of  the  original  article  war- 
rants. But  if  one  owns  a  timbale  iron,  those  fragile 
Shells  resulting  from  frying  a  batter  on  it  are  attractive 
receptacles  for  a  little  creamed  chicken  or  a  sweet- 
bread. 

Croquettes  have  their  place  occasionally,  and  often 
save  the  purchase  of  more  meat  and  thus  justify  the 
time  they  require.  A  garnish  of  crisp  triangles  of 
toast  around  a  dish  of  creamed  meat  disposes  of 
both  the  scraps  of  meat  and  bits  of  bread  —  or 
cases  may  be  made  of  bread  and  browned  in  the  oven 
and  filled  with  meat. 

The  store  closet  should  be  kept  well  stocked,  and 
this  is  less  expensive  and  far  easier  than  buying 
things  as  needed.  One  order  a  week  ought  to  be 
enough  for  the  staple  groceries,  and  two  orders  a 
week  in  winter  and  three  in  summer  for  meats, 
fruits,  and  fresh  vegetables.  Do  not  order  by  tele- 
phone, but  at  least  once  each  week  visit  the  market 
and  make  the  order  according  to  what  is  available 
there. 

The  time  often  spent  in  a  daily  visit  to  markets  or 


351 


MENU  MAKING  177 

a  daily  call  from  the  store-man  can  be  used  to  better 
advantage  in  an  average  home. 

A  fair  supply  of  good-grade  canned  goods  should 
be  kept  in  the  house  for  emergencies ;  but  as  a  whole 
these  are  more  expensive  than  fresh  cooked  meats 
and  vegetables;  but  where  fuel  is  expensive  and 
labor  high,  they  may  be  used  more~  freely. 

Milk  should  be  used  generously.  Many  families 
would  do  well  to  double  their  present  milk  supply. 
Where  milk  is  abundant  and  canned  vegetables  at 
hand,  it  takes  but  a  few  moments  to  prepare  a  nour- 
ishing and  attractive  cream  soup  of  corn,  beans,  peas, 
or  tomatoes.  If  the  top  'of  the  milk  has  been  used 
for  cereal  and  coffee,  the  remainder  will  be  quite  as 
satisfactory  as  whole  milk  for  soups  or  puddings, 
when  butter  or  other  fat  is  added. 

If  our  home  is  at  a  distance  from  markets  and  we 
have  an  abundance  of  one  type  of  food  material  and 
little  of  others,  then  it  may  be  necessary  for  us  to 
devise  many  ways  of  serving  this  one,  and  then  we 
must  use  different  forms  and  flavors  that  we  may 
not  tire  of  the  monotonous  diet.  But  when  the  sea- 
son of  any  fruit,  vegetable,  or  meat  is  brief,  then  we 
need  serve  it  only  in  its  natural  form  or  cooked  in  the 
simplest  manner. 

As  the  seasons  change,  cold  merging  into  heat 
and  heat  into  cold  again,  we  let  our  fires  go  out,  then 
we  kindle  them,  and  we  decrease  and  then  increase 
our  .clothing.  But  few  households  make  a  corres- 


353 


178 


PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY 


pondingly  marked  change  in  their  food,  adapting  it 
to  the  differing  needs  of  the  body  as  the  external 
temperature  changes. 

All  of  us  know  places  where  pork  and  pies  occupy  as 
prominent  a  position  on  the  tables  in  July  as  in  Janu- 
ary, though  their  heat-giving  qualities  make  them 
out  of  place  in  summer,  even  if  admissible  in  winter. 


Some  Ways  of  Serving  Oranges. 

"Pork  and  beans,"  where  the  fat  predominates,  may 
be  suitable  for  midwinter,  while  "baked  beans,"  with 
a  small  amount  of  fat  —  be  it  pork,  beef,  butter  or 
olive  oil  —  are  not  out  of  place  at  any  season. 

Another  phase  of  this  matter  is  the  improvement 
in  nagging  appetites,  which  is  accomplished  by  a 
change  in  food.  The  city  dwellers  are  often  better 
off  in  the  spring  than  the  country  family.  From 
the  South  to  the  city  markets  come  greens  of  several 
kinds,  asparagus,  lettuce,  cucumbers,  and  radishes, 
while  the  country  garden  is  still  bare.  A  small 
bunch  of  asparagus  as  a  garnish  around  some  inex- 


354 


MENU  MAKING 


179 


Lambs  Heart  with  Asparagus. 

pensive  meat  like  lamb  or  calf  hearts  will  give  relish 
when  a  larger  quantity  would  be  an  extravagance. 

Those  who  prepare  the  food  for  the  family  deserve 
a  change  of  labor  from  season  to  season,  and  many 
women  in  the  country  would  do  well  to  strike  from 
pie  making  and  spend  the  time  so  saved  out  of  doors. 
It  is  no  harder  to  care  for  a  strawberry  bed  than  to 


Apricotcor  Peach  Jelly. 


355 


i8o  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY 

wield  the  rolling  pin  or  bend  over  a  hot  stove,  and 
strawberries  may  well  be  substituted  for  pies. 

True  economy  must  be  practiced  in  .the  planning 
of  menus  and  one  thing  fitted  into  another  so  that 
nothing  is  lost. 

USE  OF   FATS 

Perhaps  trie  re  is  no  one  thing  more  often  wasted 
in  the  average  household  than  fat,  yet  this  is  essen- 
tial to  our  health,  and  we  pay  high  prices  for  it  in 
cream,  olive  oil,  and  butter,  when  cheaper  forms 
might  be  substituted  in  some  cases. 

The  fat  trimmed  from  meats  is  too  often  left 
at  the  market  or  thrown  away  after  cooking,  instead 
of  clarifying  it  according  to  the  directions  on  page 
73,  This,  when  properly  prepared,  would  be  far 
superior  to  the  lard  and  cooking  butter  often  bought 
for  culinary  purposes. 

The  flank  fat  from  beef,  or  "cod  fat,"  as  some 
market-men  call  it,  is  much  softer  than  suet,  and,  if 
carefully  prepared,  is  to  be  preferred  to  cooking- 
butter  for  making  ordinary  cookies,  gingerbread, 
pastry,  etc.  This  clarified  fat  usually  costs  less  than 
ten  cents  a  pound,  even  after  the  weight  of  the  scraps 
is  deducted. 

When  a  housekeeper  has  not  time  to  prepare 
such  fat,  she  may  buy  uncolored  oleomargarine  at 
about  half  the  price  of  table  butter,  or  in  the  vicinity 
of  fifteen  cents  a  pound.  (Colored  butterine  is  taxed 
ten  cents  a  pound.)  Many  preparations  of  cotton 


356 


TABLE  SERVICE  181 

seed  oil  are  on  the  market,  which  are  satisfactory 
when  fresh  for  frying  and  for  use  in  doughs. 

One  must  use  discretion  in  combining  fats  for 
different  uses.  It  is  not  desirable  to  use  smoked 
fat  like  that  from  bacon,  or  highly  seasoned  fat,  such 
as  comes  from  sausages,  for  frying  doughs,  but  these 
should  be  kept  each  by  itself  and  used  for  warming 
potatoes  and  other  vegetables. 

The  hard  suet  and  soft  chicken  oil  clarified  together 
give  an  excellent  compound,  which  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  butter  in  tomato  sauce  and  some  soups,  as 
well  as  in  many  doughs. 

In  the  same  way  all  bits  of  meat  and  bone  should  be 
used  for  stock,  alone,  or  combined  with  vegetables. 
Where  meat  is  served  once  or  twice  daily  in  a  house, 
there  is  rarely  need  of  buying  any  especially  for  soups. 

TABLE    SERVICE 

The  desirability  of  careful  table  service  for  the 
simplest  foods  is  shown  by  this  incident  told  by  one 
pupil. 

"My  aunt  had  great  difficulty  in  getting  us  to 
eat  cereal  for  breakfast,  so  she  bought  us  each  a  very 
pretty  blue  bowl.  We  were  allowed  to  use  these 
only  when  we  had  cereal  for  breakfast.  The  result 
was  that  we  eagerly  asked  for  it  every  morning  and 
now  are  very  fond  of  the  various  kinds." 

No  one  can  deny  that  such  attention  to  details 
is  an  important  part  of  the  housekeeper's  duty. 

Where  there  are  no  servants,  a  housekeeper  must 


357 


1 82        ..  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY 

be  careful  that  her  efforts  for  dainty  service  do 
not  involve  her  in  labor  beyond  her  strength.  Each 
member  of  the  family  should  have  a  part  in  the  table 
service  that  everything  may  move  smoothly. 

MENUS  FOR  SPECIAL  OCCASIONS 

Every  housekeeper  occasionally  has  to  plan  a 
special  menu  for  home  or  club  or  church  society,  and 
consideration  of  this  matter  may  be  helpful  here. 

It  is  of  first  importance  that  we  do  not  undertake 
more  than  we  can  carry  out  well.  This  applies  to 
the  choice  of  the  food  material,  to  the  number  of 
courses,  and  the  way  in  which  they  are  to  be  served. 

Instead  of  sending  away  for  rare  luxuries  with 
which  our  guests  might  be  familiar  every  day,  let  us 
make  the  most  of  the  specialties  of  our  own  locality. 

The  table  decorations  may  take  the  form  or  color 
of  the  season,  but  .beware  of  special  shapes  or  gar- 
nishes which  might  cause  any  deterioration  of  the 
food  to  be  served. 

Other  essential  points  are  to  have  everything  served 
at  the  proper  temperature,  to  alternate  brown  and 
white  or  crisp  and  soft  effects,  and  to  avoid  having 
the  same  article  appear  in  two  different  courses. 

This  couplet  from  an  old  English  poet  sums  up  the 
whole  matter: 

"Three  dishes  well  dressed,  and  a  welcome  withal, 

Both  pleaseth  thy  guest,  and  become th  thy  hall." 


358 


SUPPLEMENTAL  PROGRAM  ARRANGED  FOR 
CLASS  STUDY  ON 

PRINCIPLES   OF   COOKERY 

Ample  material  for  a  course  of  six  or  more  lessons  may  be 
secured  from  the  lesson  books  on  Principles  of  Cookery 
and  from  the  Government  Bulletins.  The  Farmers '  Bulletins 
may  be  obtained  without  charge  by  writing  to  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.  As 
many  copies  of  each  will  be  sent  as  desired.  The  bulletins 
for  which  a  price  is  given  may  be  obtained  by  sending  coin 
to  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Washington,  D.  C. 
The  Government  will  not  accept  postage  stamps.  A  few 
reference  books  are  mentioned  which  will  be  loaned  by  the 
School  for  the  cost  of  postage  given,  if  not  available  in  the 
local  public  library.  Any  encyclopedia  will  furnish  much 
on  every  subject,  and  a  book  of  standard  quotations  will  also 
add  to  the  interest  of  the  meeting. 

All  the  common  daily  foods  may  be  studied  from  the 
historical  or  literary  standpoint,  for  each  has  a  history  and 
literature  of  its  own.  Often  it  is  wise  to  set  the  practical 
housekeeper  to  look  up  the  historical  side  of  a  food,  while 
a  philosophical  member  is  required  to  report  upon  its  prac- 
tical use.  Thus  each,  gets  a  fresh  point  of  view  and  a  new 
^  interest  in  an  old  subject. 

It  might  prove  interesting  to  arrange  for  a  series  of  lunches 
to  illustrate  the  foods  being  studied.  Here  it  is  best  to 
keep  out  of  the  conventional  lines  and  make  the  menus 
educational.  When  the  class  is  large,  a  few  may  be  chosen 
to  prepare  the  lunch  for  all  and  directed  to  keep  the  expense 
within  certain  limits,  10  to  20  cents  apiece,  and  to  give 
a  report.  Chafing  dishes  should  be  provided  for  each  group 
of  four  to  eight  and  some  experimental  cookery  tried, 

189 


359 


1 9o  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY 

MEETING  I 

(Study  pages  1—39) 

Fuels  and  Appliances  for  their  Use 

Work  of  Count  Rumford: — Rumford  Kitchen  Leaflets,  No.  i. 
($1.00,  postage  8c.) 

Work  of  Benjamin  Franklin.     See  encyclopedias. 

Aladdin  Oven.  See  Science  of  Nutrition,  by  Edward 
Atkins.  ($2.00,  postage  i4C.) 

Fireless  Cook  Stove.  Pamphlet,  postage  4C.  See  also 
Supplement  to  Principles  of  Cookery. 

The  Gas  Stove.  If  gas  is  in  common  use,  have  members 
calculate  the  amount  of  gas  required  to  bake  a  loaf  of 
bread,  a  cake,  to  boil  two  quarts  of  water,  etc.,  by  observ- 
ing the  length  of  time  taken  to  burn  two  cubic  feet  —  i,  e., 
one  complete  revolution  of  the  hand  of  the  small  dial  D. 
See  page  10.  See  also  Question  5. 

Electric  Cooking  —  Technical  World  Magazine,  July  1906. 
(Postage  6c.) 

Water 

Experiments:  See  pages  21,  22.  Test  the  water  boiling 
slowly  and  boiling  hard  with  a  thermometer.  Note  the 
simmering  temperature  and-  observe  how  much  less  heat 
is  required  to  keep  the  water  at  this  temperature'  than  to 
keep  it  boiling  vigorously.  (If  a  gas  stove  is  not  available, 
use  a  small  kerosene  stove  or  a  chafing  dish  burner.)  A 
suitable  thermometer  may  be  obtained  through  the  school 
for  50  cents.  Loaned  for  6c  postage. 

The  experiment  on  page  22  can  be  made  with  one  dish  using 
the  same  quantity  (say  a  cup)  in  each  case. 

Topic:     Kitchen  Experiment. 

References:  Chemistry  of  Cooking-,  by  Williams.  Chapter 
II.  Boiling  of  Water.  ($1.50,  postage  i2c.) 
Drinking  Water  and  Ice  Supplies,  by  Prudden. 
(750.,  postage  6c.) 


360 


PROGRAM  191 

Preserving 

Canning    of    Fruit,    Preserves    and    Jellies,    Maria    Parloa. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  203,  free. 

Improved  Method  of  Canning,  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  262. 
Use  and  Abuse  of  Food  Preservatives.     Extract  No.    221. 

Free,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 


MEETING  II 

(Study  pages  39-54) 
Milk 

Make  sour  milk  cheese  and  junket.      (See  page  44.) 
Show  how  acid  may  be  used  with  milk  without  curdling. 

(See  page  45.). 

References:  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  42,  Facts  about  Milk; 
No.  74,  Milk  as  Food;  No.  29,  Souring  of 
Milk  and  othe^  Changes  in  Milk  Products; 
No.  63,  Care  of  Milk  on  the  Farm;  No.  210, 
The  Covered  Milk  pail;  No.  227,  Clean  Milk. 
Milk  and  its  Products,  by  Wing.  ($1.00, 

postage  IDC.) 
Butter 

See  experiments  page  50. 

White  Sauce:  In  a  chafing  dish,  or  over  a  small  kerosene  or 
gas  burner,  make  white  sauce  by  three  methods  described 
on  page  51. 

To  what  extent  may  other  less  expensive  fats  be  substi- 
tuted for  butter. 

Make  white  sauce  with  oleomargarine. 

Have  some  membar  make  two  or  three  small  cakes  from  the 
same  recipe.  In  one  use  butter,  in  another  oleomarga- 
rine, in  another  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  lard  and  beef 
suet.  Bake  all  at  the  same  time  and  have  all  conditions 
as  nearly  the  same  as  possible.  Show  results. 


361 


192  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY 

Topic:     French    Sauces    and    their    Inventors.     See    Hand 
Book   of    Domestic  Science,  by  Wilson,  page  69. 
($1.00,  postage  loc.)     And  other  books. 
References:  Extract  No.  44.     Butter  Substitutes. 

Sanitary  and  Economic  Cooking,     by  Mary  Hinman 
Abel.     Chapter  on  Fats  and  Oils.     (4oc. ,  postage 
6c.) 
Cheese 

Make  and  serve  Welsh  rarebit  made  from-  different  recipes. 

using  the  same  kind  of  cheese,  or  make  two  lots  by  the 

same  recipe  and  method,  using  two  or  more  grades  of  cheese.. 

See  Question  17. 

Exhibit:         Show  samples   of   all   possible  kinds  of  cheese; 

prices  and  composition. 
Topic:  Ways  of  using  Cheese  in  Cookery.     See  Sanitary 

and  Economic  Cooking  and  Cook  Books. 

References:  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  82,  Curd  Test  in  Cheese 
Making;  No.  144,  The  Curing  of  Cheese;  No. 
162,  Cheese  Prints;  No:  202,  Manufacture  of 
Cottage  Cheese;  No.  244,  The  Food  Value  of 
Cottage  Cheese;  No.  166,  Cheese  Making  on 
on  the  Farm. 
Chemistry  of  Cooking,  by  Williams;  Chapter  IX, 

Cheese.     ($1.50,  postage  2C.) 

(Select  answers  to  Test  Questions  on  Part  I  and  send  them 
to  the  School  for  correction  and  report  on  experiments.) 


MEETING  III 

(Study  pages  55-82) 
Eggs 

See  experiments  on  cooking  of  eggs  in  water,  page  57. 
Try  similar  experiments  in  "frying"  eggs  with  fat  at  high 

and  low  temperature. 
See  Question  6. 
Show  egg  mixtures  a's  custards,  sponge  cakes,  etc.,  cooked 

at  too  high  a  temperature  and  the  same  ingredients  cooked 

at  correct  temperature. 


362 


PROGRAM  193 

References:     Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  128,   Eggs  and  their  Use 
as  Food;    No.  103,  preserving  Eggs;   No.  122, 
Flavor  of  Eggs;  No.  262.  Color  of  Eggs. 
Meat,  Fish,  Fowl 
Sanitary    and    Economic    Cooking,    "Methods    of    Cocking 

Meat,  "  by  Mary  Hinman  Abel.      (4oc.,  postage  6c.) 
See  Cook  Books. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  34,  Meats:   Composition  and  Cooking; 
No.  85,  Fish  as  Food;   No.  182,  Poultry  as  Food;   No.  193, 
Cooking  Meat;   No.  162,  Cooking  Meat. 
The  Roasting  of  Beef,  by  Isabel  Bevier.     Circular  No.  71, 

University  of  Illinois  (postage  2C.). 

Topic:     Methods  of  Cooking  Cheap  Cuts  of  Meat  in  Palatable 
Form. 


MEETING  IV 

(Study  pages  83-97) 

Vegetables 

See  experiments,  pages  83-84. 

Get  up  an  exhibit  of  uncommon  vegetables. 

Illustrate  the  effect  of  overcooking  vegetables  by  boiling 
a  peeled  potato,  —  one  until  it  is  just  soft,  another  until 
it  becomes  soggy. 

Topic:     History  of  the  White  Potato. 

References:  Farmers'  Bulletin  No  256,  Preparation  of 
Vegetables  for  the  Table,  by  Maria  Parloa. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  121,  Beans,  Peas  and 
other  Legumes  as  Food,  by  Mary  Hinman 
Abel;  No.  127,  Sweet  Potatoes;  No.  244, 
Cooking  Qualities  of  Potatoes;  No.  73,  Losses 
in  the  Cooking  of  Vegetables;  Extract  from 
Year-Book,  1900,  Value  of  Potatoes  as  Food. 


363 


194  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKERY 

Grains 

History:     See  "Corn  Plant"  by  Sargent.      (750.,  postage  6c.) 

Experiment:     Cook  cereal  breakfast  food  for  twenty  minutes 

as  directed.     Start  another  portion  the  night  before  and 

cook  for  two  hours,   heating   before   serving.      Compare 

results. 

References:     Farmers'    Bulletin  No.    249,   Cereal     Breakfast 
Foods;  Extract  324,  Wheat  Flour  and  Bread; 
Extract  326,  Macaroni  Wheat. 
The  Cooking  of  Starch  in  Cereals,  Extract  No.  7, 

Illinois  Experiment  Station.     (Postage  2C  ) 
(Select  and  send  answers  to  Test  Questions  on  Part  II.) 


MEETING  V 
(Study  pages  99  —  122) 
Bread 

Demonstration:       Illustrate   proportion  of   flour   and  liquid 
for    (i)    Batters,    (2)    Muffin    Mixtures,   (3)   Soft  Dough, 
(4)   Pastry  Dough.     See  pages  99  -  100. 
See  experiments  with  Leavening  Agents,  page  108. 
If  members  are  in  the  habit  of  making  their  own  bread, 
hold  a  bread  contest,  appointing  judges  to  grade  the  bread 
according    to    the    chart    designed    by    Professor    Isabel 
Bevier  for  the  Illinois  Domestic  Science  Association,  viz. 

Flavor 35 

Lightness 15 

Grain  and  Texture 20 

Crust — 

Color       ) 

Depth     [• 10 

Texture  ) 
Crumb — 

Color        ) 

MoistureJ ' 

Shape  and  Size •. „ . ,. 10 

100 
Size  of  pan  recommended,  7^  x  3 \  x  z\  inches. 


364 


PROGRAM  195 

Pastry  and  Cake:  Illustrate  the  difference  between  bread 
and  pastry  flour  by  making  two  cakes  exactly  alike  and 
baking  at  the  same  time. 

Illustrate  the  effect  of  a  quick  and  a  slow  oven  on  the  same 
dough. 

Topic:     Use  of  thermometers. 

Bread:     Quotations  from  prose  and  poetry  by  members. 

References:  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  112,  Bread  and  the 
Principles  of  Bread  Making;  No.  114,  Skim 
Milk  in  Bread  Making. 

Story  of  a  Grain  of  Wheat,  by  W.  C.  Edge.      ($i .  oo,  postage 

IOC.)  

MEETING  VI 

(Study  pages  122-138) 
Food  and  its  Appeal  to  the  Senses 

The  importance  of  flavor,  etc.,  as  an  aid  to  digestion:  See 
The  Work  of  the  Digestive  Glands,  by  Pawlow,  the 
"Psychic  or  Appetite  Juices."  ($2.  oo,  postage  i6c.) 
Also  Food  and  Dietetics,  by  Hutchison.  Pages  396—397. 
($3.00,  postage  26c.) 
Cut  illustration  of  cooked  food  from  magazine  to  be  discussed 

and  criticised  by  members. 
Topics:     The  Use  and  Abuse  of  Garnish  in  Food. 

Harmony   in    Colors,    Flavors    and    Odors   in   our 

Foods. 
Salads. 

Use  of  Left-overs. 
Menus 

See  Supplement. 
Menus  for  a  week:   Have  each  member  give  her  method  of 

planning  meals. 
Menus  for  Social  Occasions. 

Topics:     Economy  of  Time  and  Strength  in  Cooking. 
Is  Hospitality  a  Lost  Art . 
Serving  by  different  Methods.     Illustrated 


365 


CYLINDER  TYPE  FIRELESS  COOKER 


BENCH  TYPE  FIRELESS  COOKER 

The  "Caloric,"  Alummoid  Lined  with  Aluminum  Utensils.  The 
aluminum  utensils  with  clamped  covers  can  be  purchased  separately 
for  home-made  cookers. 


366 


FREEHAND  COOKING 

THE  purpose  of  this  Bulletin  is  to  tabulate  the  material 
in  Principles  of  Cookery  and  to  give  the  compara- 
tively few  fundamental  recipes  in  cooking  which  are 
capable  of  infinite  variation. 

Exact  proportions,  conditions,  and  materials  are  essen- 
tial to  obtain  identical  results  in  cooking,  but  materials  vary 
somewhat  and  conditions  differ,  so  that  it  is  often  necessary 
to  modify  a  recipe.  By  "free  hand  cooking"  is  not  meant 
hit  or  miss  cooking,  or  cooking  by  guess,  but  the  compound- 
ing of  food  materials  on  scientific  principles — not  following 
blindly  by  "rule  of  thumb"  recipes  which  may  have  been 
made  for  different  conditions. 

WEIGHTS  AND   MEASURES. 

3  teaspoons=l  tablespoon  2  pints=l  quart 
16  tablespoons=l  cup                       4  quarts=l  gallon 

2  cups=l  pint  1  cup=8  ounces  (volume) 

A  gallon  of  water  weighs  8  1/3  pounds — a  cup  of  water,  8  1/3 
ounces  (avoirdupois).     A  gallon  contains  231  cubic  inches. 

All  materials  are  measured  level,  i.  e.,  by  filling  cup  or  spoon 
more  than  full  and  leveling  with  a  case  knife.  This  applies  to 
liquids  which  "round  up"  in  spoons.  Flour,  meal,  and  fine  sugar 
are  measured  after  sifting.  Measuring  cups  are  not  always  accu- 
rate and  ordinary  tea  and  tablespoons  vary  considerably. 
Test  spoons  witli  each  other  and  with  the  cup  before  using. 

APPROXIMATE  MEASURE  OF  ONE  POUND. 
2  cups  milk  2  5/6  cups  granulated  cornmeal 

2  cups  butter  2  2/3  cups  oatmeal 

2  cups  chopped    meat  6  cups  rolled  oats 

2  cups  granulated   sugar  4  1/3  cups  rye  meal 

2  2/3  cups  brown  sugar  1^  cups  rice 

2  2/3  cups    powdered    sugar  2  1/3  cups  dry  beans 

3]/2    cups   confectioners'    sugar      4  1/3  cups  coffee 

4  cups  patent  flour  8  large  eggs 

4  cups  entire  wheat  flour  9  medium   eggs 

4*/2  cups   Graham  flour  10  small  eggs 

Note. — Read  "tablespoons"  in  place  of  cups  in  the  above  and  the 
weight  is  about  1  ounce. 

Copyright  1910,  by  American  School  of  Home  Economics. 


357 


No  table  of  weights  to  measure  can  be  more  than 
approximate,  as  different  samples  vary  in  weight  for  bulk. 
In  truly  scientific  cookery  quantities  should  be  measured 
by  weight.  The  table  is  useful  for  comparison,  i.  e.,  pow- 
dered sugar  is  more  bulky  than  granulated  and  less  so  than 
confectioners',  hence  the  greater  sweetening  power  of  gran- 
ulated; ordinary  white  flour  (sifted)  is  less  bulky  than 
Graham  flour,  and  so  on. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  there  may  be  a  difference 
of  25  per  cent  in  the  weight  of  a  "cup  of  flour"  measured 
by  different  persons  in  different  ways.  One  method  is  to 
sift  the  flour  onto  a  square  of  glazed  paper  (or  oil  cloth) 
and  pour  it  into  the  cup  placed  on  another  piece  of  paper — 
tap  the  side  of  the  cup  once  with  a  knife  and  level. 

METHODS  OF  APPLYING  HEAT. 

BROILING — Cooking   before    or    over   glowing   coals    or   under   gas. 

Radiant  heat.     High  temperature  at  first  to  sear  outside,  thus 

developing  flavor  and  retaining  juices;  then  lower  temperature 

for  the  heat  to  penetrate  and  to  avoid  burning. 
PAN   BROILING — Cooking  on  very  hot  griddle  with  only  sufficient 

fat  to  prevent  sticking. 

ROASTING — Same  as  broiling,  superseded  by  baking  in  oven. 
BAKING — Cooking  in  oven  by  heated  air  and  radiation. 

Slow  oven,  270°— 350°  F. 

Moderate  oven,  350°-400°  F. 

Quick  oven,  400°^80°  F. 

(Temperatures  taken  by  a  thermometer  through  the  top  of  a 

gas  stove  oven.) 

BOILING — Cooking  in  boiling  water,  212°  F. 
STEWING — Cooking  in  water  at  temperature  160°  to  180°  F. 
STEAMING — Cooking  in  contact   with   steam,   212°    F. 
DRY  STEAMING,  as  in  a  double  boiler,  192°  F. 
FRYING — Cooking  by  immersion  in  deep  fat,  approximately  350°  F. 

for  uncooked  foods,  380°  F.  for  cooked  foods.    The  fat  used: 

all  lard,  2/3  lard  and  1/3  beef  suet,  "cod  fat"  from  the  flank  of 

beef,    oil,    "cottolene"    and    mixtures.      Temperatures    vary    to 

produce  similar  effects  with  different   fats. 

SAUTEING — Cooking  in  small  quantity  of   fat — often  called   frying. 
BRAISING — Combination  of  stewing  and  baking.     Meat  is  often  first 

seared  to  develop  flavor  and  prevent  escape  of  juices. 
FRICASSEEING— Combination  of   sauteing  and   stewing. 

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COMPOSITION  OF  RAW  FOODS. 

Parts  in  100  (approximate). 

Wheat  Flour— 12  water,  12  gluten,  75  starch,  1  fat. 
Cornmeal — 12  water,  9  protein,  75  starch,  2  fat. 
Beans  and  Peas,  dry — 13  water,  24  legumen,  60  starch,  2  fat. 
Potato,  white — 78  water,  2  protein,  18  starch,  trace  of  fat. 
Parsnips,    Carrots,   Turnips— 85   water,    1    proteid   substance,   9—12 

starch  and  sugar,  y*  fat. 

Banana — 75  water,  1  protein,  22  sugar  and  starch,  ^  fat. 
Loin  of  Beef  (avg.) — 60  water,  13  protein,  20  fat. 
Eggs — 74  water,  13  albumen,  10  fat. 
Egg,  white — 86  water,  12  albumen,  no  fat. 
Egg,  yolk — 50  water,  16  albumen,  33  fat. 
Milk — 87  water,  3  casein,  5  sugar,  4  fat. 
Cheese — 33  water,  26  casein,  33  fat. 
Nuts — 3  water,  20  protein,  15  starch,  55  fat. 
Butter— 12  water,  1  protein,  85  fat. 
Lard,  Olive  Oil— 100  fat. 

All  the  above  foods  except  refined  fats,  sugar  and  starch,  contain 
from  y*  per  cent  to  1  per  cent  of  mineral  matter  (salts),  apparent 
when  the  foods  are  burned  as  ash.  Butter  and  cheese  have  2  per 
cent  or  3  per  cent  of  common  salt  added. 

Protein  foods  are  eggs,  meats,  fish,  cheese. 

Starchy  foods  are  the  grains  —  wheat,  rice,  rye,  oats, 
corn,  etc.,  beans,  peas,  potatoes,  chestnut. 

Fats  are  prominent  in  fat  meats,  nuts,  cream,  butter, 
lard. 

Cellulose  or  woody  fiber  is  found  in  vegetables,  unscreened 
flours  and  meals,  and  in  fruits,  especially  when  unripe. 

EFFECT   OF  HEAT   ON  FOOD  MATERIALS. 

STARCH  absorbs  water,  swells  and  becomes  partially  soluble 
in  water.  This  begins  at  about  150°  F.  Dry  starch 
begins  to  change  to  dextrine  at  about  320°  F. 

CELLULOSE  itself  is  not  affected  by  cooking,  but  the  con- 
necting substances  are  softened  and  it  may  be  separated. 

ALBUMEN  is  hardened,  "coagulated,"  and  will  no  longer  dis- 
solve in  water.  Temperature  about  160°  F.  Other  pro- 
teins, as  the  gluten  of  flour,  casein  of  milk,  legumen  of 

5 


369 


peas  and  beans,  myosin  of  meat,  are  hardened  some- 
what. 

GELATIN  is  formed  from  gristle  and  connecting  tissue  of 
meat,  and  from  bones,  by  long  continued  heating  in 
the  presence  of  water. 

SUGAR  is  not  changed  at  low  temperatures  unless  acid  is 
present.  It  melts  at  about  365°  and  begins  to  caramelize 
at  about  420°  F.  Sugar,  boiled  with  acid,  changes 
slowly  to  glucose  or  non-crystallizing  sugar. 
FAT  is  not  changed,  except  at  a  very  high  temperature, 
500°  F.  and  over,  when  it  is  broken  apart — "split" — 
into  fatty  acid  and  glycerine.  Some  of  the  glycerine  is 
changed  to  "acrolein,"  which  is  very  irritating  to  the 
mucus  membrane,  as  is  recognized  by  the  smarting 
sensation  given  to  the  eyes  and  nose  when  fats  are 
heated  too  hot.  Butter  begins  to  "split"  at  374°  F,  lard 
at  446°  F,  olive  oil  at  630°  F. 

BAKING  POWDER,  a  mixture  of  cooking  soda  and  an  acid 
substance,  as  cream  of  tartar,  or  phosphates,  or  alum, 
undergoes  chemical  change ;  the  acid  part  of  the  mix- 
ture drives  out  the  carbon  dioxid  gas  of  the  soda  and 
salts — as  Rochelle  salts,  or  phosphates,  or  alumina 
compounds — are  formed. 

The  heat  of  the  oven  expands  any  air  or  gas  in  the  food, 
evaporates  part  of  the  water  and  drives  out  volatile  sub- 
stances like  alcohol. 

All  these  changes  are,  for  the  most  part,  physical  rather 
than  chemical  in  their  nature.  For  example,  in  a  cake. after 
baking,  the  sugar  is  still  sugar,  the  starch  is  still  starch,  the 
fat  is  still  fat,  and  the  albumen  is  still  albumen.  All  the 
materials  have  been  blended,  flavors  having  been  developed 
through  minor  but  complex  chemical  changes  and  a  small 
proportion  of  the  starch  and  sugar  in  the  crust  have  been 
changed  to  dextrin  and  caramel. 

TEMPERATURE  AND  TIME  OF  COOKING. 

All  food  materials  are  poor  conductors  of  heat — it  takes 
time  for  the  heat  to  penetrate. 

The  correct  time  and  temperature  depends  on  (1)  what 

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370 


is  to  be  accomplished,  (2)  size  to  thickness,  i.  e.,  the  extent 
of  surface  exposed  to  the  heat,  compared  to  the  bulk. 

Foods  with  a  large  proportion  of  eggs  require  low  tem- 
perature to  prevent  toughening. 

Starch  requires  nearly  the  temperature  of  boiling  water 
for  cooking.' 

No  food  containing  much  water  can  be  raised  to  a  tem- 
perature above  the  boiling  point — 212°  F.  Water  gives  off 
vapor  at  all  temperatures,  but  at  212°  F.  steam  forms  rapidly 
and  in  so  doing  absorbs  a  large  quantity  of  heat.  No  brown 
crust  can  be  formed  until  the  water  from  the  surface  is 
nearly  all  evaporated.  A  full  oven  in  which  much  water 
vapor  is  being  given  off  requires  the  application  of  more 
heat  than  when  only  one  or  two  dishes  are  in  it. 

In  baking  doughs,  the  larger  the  mass  the  lower  must  be 
the  temperature  in  order  that  the  heat  may  have  time  to 
penetrate  to  the  interior  and  expand  the  gas  and  harden 
the  albumen  and  gluten.  If  the  temperature  is  too  high  at 
first,  a  crust  forms,  preventing  the  proper  expansion  of  the 
loaf  and  hindering  the  penetration  of  the  heat. 

Thin  loaves,  pieces  of  meat,  etc.,  need  much  less  time  for 
cooking,  because  the  heat  pentrates  quickly.     Higher  tem- 
peratures may  be  used,  as  the  food  is  cooked  before  the 
surface  begins  to  be  burned. 
•  Mixtures  containing  much  sugar  or  molasses  burn  easily. 

Vegetables  containing  much  fiber  need  long  boiling  to 
soften  them  and  separate  the  cellulose.  Young,  green  vege- 
tables contain  less  fiber  and  require  less  time  in  cooking. 

Bearing  all  the  above  in  mind,  the  following  tables  may 
serve  as  a  general  guide  for  beginners.  When  it  is  possible 
to  do  so,  TEST. 


371 


TIME  TABLE. 


BOILING 

Meats  (4  to  5  Ibs.) — 2  to  5  hours. 
(Tough  meats  should  be  kept 
below  boiling,  180°  F.) 

Fish  (2  to  5  Ibs.) — 30  to  45  min- 
utes. 

Ham  (12  to  14  Ibs.) — 4  to  5 
hours. 

Corned  Meat  (6  to  8  Ibs.) — 4  to  6 
hours. 

Potatoes,  white — 20  to  30  min- 
utes. 

Potatoes,  sweet — 15  to  25  min- 
utes. 

Peas,  green — 20  to  60  minutes. 

Beans,   string — %   to  1  hour. 

Beets,   young — 45   minutes. 

Beets,  old — 3  or  4  hours. 

Onions — 40   to  60  minutes. 

Cauliflower — 20   to   25  minutes. 

Cabbage,  cut  up — 20  to  25  min- 
utes. 

Turnips,  parsnips — 30  to  45  min- 
utes. 

Carrots — 1  hour ;  less  if  young. 

Green  corn — 8  to  15  minutes. 

Spinach — 15  to  20  minutes. 

Squash — 20  to  30  minutes. 

Asparagus — 20    to   30   minutes. 

Diced  Vegetables — 10  to  20  min- 
utes. 


BAKING 

Beef  rib  (medium,  4  Ibs.) — 1  hour, 
15  min. 

Beef  rib  (medium,  8  Ibs.) — 2  hours, 
15  min. 

Leg  of  lamb— 1  hour,  30  minutes. 

Pork    (rib) — 3  to  4  hours. 

Veal  (leg)— 3  to  4  hours. 

Chicken  (3  to  4  Ibs.) — 1  to  iy2 
hours. 

Turkey  (8  to  10  Ibs.) — 2  to  3 
hours. 

Fish  (3  to  4  Ibs.) — 45  to  60  min- 
utes. 

Braised  beef — 4  to  5  hours. 

Bread,  white — 45  to  60  min.  de- 
pending on  shape  of  loaf. 

Bread,  Graham — 35  to  45  min- 
utes. 

Quick   Doughs — 8   to  15   minutes. 

Cookies — 8  to  10  minutes. 

Cake,  thin — 15  to  30  minutes. 

Cake,  loaf — 40  to  60  minutes. 

Pudding,  Indian,  etc. — 3  hours  or 
more. 

Bread  Pudding — 20  to  45  min., 
depending  on  shape  and  num- 
ber of  eggs. 

Pies — 30  to  45  minutes. 

Scalloped  Dishes — 15  to  20  min. 

Baked  Beans — 12  hours  or  longer. 


OVEN  TEMPERATURES. 

ENTER  AT  KEEP  AT 

Roast  Meats   ,  480°  F.  350°  F. 

Fish    425°  F.  350°  F. 

Bread    440°  F.  400°  F. 

Popovers    480°  F.  450°  F. 

Cookies,  Puff  Paste  480°  F.  450°  F. 

Quick   Doughs    480°  F.  480°  F. 

Ginger  Bread  and  Molasses  Mixture  380°  F.  380°  F. 

Plain   Cake    380°  F.  380°  F. 

Sponge   Cake    350°  F.  340°  F. 

Baked    Custard 350°  F.         Higher  in  water 

These  temperatures  are  for  gas  ovens,  with  thermometer  through 
the  top.  An  oven  door  "thermostat"  should  register  from  50°  to 
70°  less.  Few  of  these  are  accurate  in  their  readings,  but  after  being 
tested  a  few  times  they  are  useful  in  obtaining  desired  temperatures 
thereafter. 

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372 


PROCESSES 

IK  addition  to  the  methods  or  processes  of  applying  heat, 
there  are  a  few  fundamental  processes  in  cooking,  i.  e.f 
thickening,  leavening,  shortening  and  flavoring. 

THICKENING  AGENTS. 

The  common  thickening  agents  are  flour,  corn  starch,  eggs, 
gelatin,  sea  moss,  junket  for  milk,  and  pectin  of  unripe 
fruits  for  jellies  and  freezing. 

One  level  tablespoon  of  flour  will  thicken  one  cup  of 
liquid  for  soups. 

Two  level  tablespoons  of  flour  will  thicken  one  cup  of 
drippings  or  other  liquid  for  gravies  and  sauces. 

Five  level  tablespoons  of  browned  flour  will  thicken  one 
cup  of  liquid  for  gravy. 

The  thickening  power  of  corn  starch  is  about  twice  that 
of  flour. 

Four  level  tablespoons  of  corn  starch  will  stiffen  about 
one  pint  of  liquid,  as  in  corn  starch  pudding. 

One  level  tablespoon  of  granulated  gelatin  will  stiffen 
about  one  pint  of  liquid,  if  cooled  on  ice. 

Two  good  sized  eggs  to  one  pint  of  milk  make  a  custard — - 
one  egg  to  a  cup  for  soft  custard  or  baked  cup  custard: 
three  eggs  to  a  pint  of  milk  for  a  large  mould  custard. 

LEAVENING  AGENTS. 

Doughs  are  made  light  or  porous  in  the  following  ways: 

(a)  By  the  production  (and  expansion  by  heat)  of  car- 

bon dioxid  gas  from  the  baking  soda  in  baking 
powder  or  baking  soda,  combined  with  some  acid 
substance. 

(b)  From  carbon  dioxid  gas  produced  .by  the  growth 

of  yeast— a  plant. 

.  (c)  From  the  expansion  of  entangled  air,  incorporated 
in  the  dough  by  means  of  beaten  eggs,  especially 
the  white,  and  by  the  beating  batters,  and  by 
folding  thick  doughs. 

(d)   From  the  expansion  of  water  to  steam. 
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373 


Two  level  teaspoons  of  baking  powder  are  equivalent  to 
one-half  teaspoon  of  baking  soda  combined  with  one  and 
one-fourth  (i.  e.,  slightly  rounded)  teaspoon  of  cream  of  tar- 
tar; or  one  cup  of  thick  sour  milk,  or  one  cup  of  molasses, 
in  place  of  the  cream  of  tartar. 

Two  cups  of  flour  made  into  a  soft  dough  requires  two  to 
four  level  teaspoons  of  baking  powder. 

Batters  and  muffin  mixtures  require  somewhat  more  bak- 
ing powder  to  the  flour  than  soft  doughs. 

One  teaspoon  less  of  baking  powder  may  be  used  for  each 
egg  added. 

The  yeast  plant  grows  best  at  75°  to  90°  F.  It  changes 
sugar  into  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxid  gas.  Flour  contains 
a  small  proportion  of  sugar  and  during  bread  making  some 
of  the  starch  is  changed  into  sugar,  but  the  yeast  begins  to 
act  more  quickly  if  a  little  sugar  or  glucose  is  added  at  first. 
Salt  and  fats  hinder  the  growth  of  the  yeast.  Low  temper- 
atures stop  the  growth  almost  completely ;  high  temperatures 
kill  the  plant. 

When  eggs  are  used  as  leavening  agents,  the  whites  are 
beaten  separately,  as  they  will  hold  much  more  air  than  the 
yolks,  and  folded  into  the  mixture  the  last  thing,  breaking 
as  few  air  cells  as  possible. 

When  air  is  depended  on  for  leavening  agent,  all  mate- 
rials are  kept  as  cold  as  possible.  Cold  air  expands  more 
on  heating  than  warm  air.  In  pastry  making,  heat  also 
melts  the  fat,  so  that  the  dough  cannot  be  handled. 

SHORTENING. 

Fats  are  added  to  doughs  to  make  the  product  brittle — 
friable — "short,"  and  to  enrich  the  mixture.  The  fat  coun- 
teracts the  adhesive  properties  of  the  gluten  and  starch 
in  flour. 

Pastry  flours  contain  less  gluten  than  bread  flours  and 
so  require  less  shortening. 

Butter  and  oleomargarine  contain  about  one-eighth  water 
and  salt,  and  thus  have  less  shortening  powers  than  lard, 
drippings,  cottolene,  and  the  like,  which  contain  no  water. 

Two  cups  of  flour  (eight  ounces)  made  into  puff  paste 
requires  eight  ounces  (one  cup)  of  shortening. 

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374 


Two  cups  of  flour  in  ordinary  pie  crust  requires  four 
ounces  (one-half  cup)  of  shortening. 

Two  cups  of  flour  in  cookies  requires  four  ounces  (one- 
half  cup)  of  shortening,  or  less. 

Two  cups  of  flour  in  cake  requires  about  three  ounces  of 
shortening. 

Two  cups  of  flour  in  short  cake  requires  two  ounces  (one- 
fourth  cup)  of  shortening,  or  more. 

Two  cups  of  flour  in  tea  biscuits  requires  one-half  to  one 
ounce  (one  to  two  tablespoons)  or  more  of  shortening. 

In  yeast  doughs  less  shortening  is  used — from  one-half 
to  an  ounce  to  two  cups  of  flour.  The  tenacity  of  the  gluten 
is  required  to  hold  the  carbon  dioxid  gas  slowly  formed  by 
the  yeast,  hence  too  much  shortening  prevents  proper  rising. 

Shortening  for  batters  may  be  melted  and  mixed  in,  but  in 
doughs  which  are  to  be  rolled — pastry,  cookies,  short-cake, 
biscuit,  etc. — the  fat  should  be  cold  and  hard  and  cut  into 
the  flour  with  a  knife,  or  rubbed  in  with  the  tips  of  the 
fingers. 

FLAVORING. 

The  flavoring  materials  most  commonly  used  are  salt, 
sugar,  spices  and  extracts.  The  fine  art  of  cookery  consists 
of  developing  the  full  natural  flavor  of  the  foods  themselves 
and  in  combining  them  in  pleasing  ways. 

The  amount  of  salt  to  be  used  depends,  in  general,  on  the 
total  volume  of  the  food.  When  food  tastes  salty,  too  much 
has  been  used.  A  safe  proportion  is  one  teaspoon  salt  to 
one  quart  of  liquid  in  soups,  cereals,  sauces,  or  to  one  quart 
of  flour  in  doughs.  When  the  flavors  are  delicate,  some- 
what less  salt  is  used,  and  with  strong  flavors,  somewhat 
more.  Cakes  in  which  much  salt  butter  is  used  do  not  need 
more  salt. 

The  quantity  of  sugar  to  be  used  depends  on  the  taste 
desired.  Foods  served  frozen  need  more  sweetening  than 
when  at  ordinary  temperatures.  On  the  other  hand,  foods 
that  are  served  warm  taste  somewhat  sweeter  than  when  at 
ordinary  temperature. 


11 


375 


RECIPES 

The  following  recipes  were  furn.  hed  by  Miss  Anna  Barrows, 
teacher  of  cookery,  Columbia  University,  author  of  Principles  of 
Cookery,  or  adapted  by  the  editor  from  the  various  standard  recipes 
used  in  cooking  schools: 

WATER:    EXTRACTING  FLAVOR. 
Tea. 

Heat  an  earthenware  teapot  with  hot  water.  Empty  it 
and  put  in  one  teaspoon  of  tea  for  each  measuring  cup  of 
fresh  boiling  water.  Let  it  stand  in  a  warm  place  two  or 
three  minutes.  Strain  and  serve  at  once.  If  the  tea  boils  or 
stands  too  long  with  the  leaves  it  is  unfit  to  drink. 

Coffee. 

Use  one-fourth  cup  of  coffee  for  one  pint  of  water. 
Place  fine  ground  coffee  in  strainer  in  the  coffee  pot;  add 
actually  boiling  water  slowly,  a  spoonful  or  two  at  a  time. 
Cover  between  additions  Pour  through  a  second  time  if 
desired  stronger. 

OR:  Mix  one-fourth  cap  coffee  and  one  teaspoon  beaten 
egg  with  a  little  cold  water,  add  the  remainder  of  one  pint 
of  water  boiling  hot.  Let  it  boil  up,  pour  from  the  spout 
and  turn  back  into  the  pot  and  leave  for  ten  minutes  where 
it  will  keep  hot  but  not  boil. 

Stock. 

Stock  is  the  basis  for  all  soups,  except  milk  or  cream 
soups,  to  which  it  is  sometimes  added.  From  a  pint  to  a 
quart  of  cold  salted  water  is  used  to  each  pound  of  meat 
and  bone,  both  of  which  should  be  in  small  pieces.  Let 
stand  one  hour,  heat  slowly  and  simmer  gently  for  four 
hours  or  more,  strain  and  cool  quickly.  Remove  the  hard- 
ened fat  before  using.  About  a  cup  of  mixed  vegetables — 
carrot,  onion,  parsley,  celery,  etc. — may  be  added  during 
the  last  hour.  Mixed  herbs  and  spices,  as  bay-leaf,  blade  of 
mace,  two  or  three  cloves  and  pepper  corns,  may  be  tied 
in  cheese  cloth  and  removed  from  the  liquor  when  sufficient 
flavor  has  been  extracted. 


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376 


BOUILLON — usually  made  from  beef  with  little  bone  and 
no  vegetables.  BROWN  STOCK — some  of  the  meat  and  a  part 
of  the  vegetables  browned  in  hot  fat  or  marrow.  WHITE 
STOCK — made  from  chicken,  veal,  or  fish;  no  flavoring 
which  gives  color  added.  MACARONI,  VERMICELLI,  NOODLE, 
RICE,  BARLEY  SOUP  and  the  like — cook  about  one-fourth 
cup  of  dry  material  until  tender  and  add  a  quart  of  hot 
stock,  or  use  cooked  left-overs.  JULIENNE  SOUP — one-half 
cup  mixed  cooked  vegetables  cut  in  cubes,  strips  or  fancy 
shapes,  to  one  quart  of  stock. 

RESTORING  WATER. 
Dried  Fruits  and  Vegetables. 

Pick  over,  cover  with  cold  water,  leave  for  half  an  hour, 
then  wash  thoroughly,  inspecting  each  portion  and  drain. 
Again  cover  with  cold  water  and  soak  12  to  24  hours,  and 
then  cook  slowly  until  tender.  Add  sugar  if  desired  for  sauce 
when  nearly  done,  or  use  like  fresh  fruit  for  pies,  short- 
cake, etc. 

Prunes,  apricots,  peaches,  apples,  pears  and  vegetables 
are  treated  in  this  way. 

THICKENING. 
Sauces. 

Methods  of  mixing:  (i)  Melt  butter  (or  other  fat)  in 
saucepan,  stir  in  dry  flour,  cook  and  stir  until  frothy  all 
over,  then  add  liquid  slowly,  hot  or  cold,  while  stirring; 
cook  again  until  thick,  stirring  until  smooth. 

(2)  Rub  butter  and  flour  together  and  stir  into  the  warm 
liquid  in  a  double  boiler,  then  cook  and  stir  until  thick  and 
smooth. 

(3)  When  cream  or  less  butter  is  used,  rub  the  flour 
smoothly  with  a  little  cold  liquid  and  stir  into  the  remain- 
der, which  should  be  hot,  and  cook  in  double  boiler  until 
smooth.    Then  add  butter  and  seasoning. 

THIN  SAUCE:  One  level  tablespoon  fat,  one  tablespoon 
flour  and  one  cup  liquid,  one-fourth  teaspoon  salt,  few  grains 
pepper  (white). 

Suitable  for  creamed  potatoes,  macaroni,  toast,  etc. 

13 


377 


MEDIUM  SAUCE:  Two  tablespoons  fat,  two  tablespoons 
flour  and  one  cup  of  liquid.  Seasoning. 

For  general  use  with  fish  and  vegetables. 

THICK  SAUCE  :  Two  to  four  tablespoons  of  fat  and  three 
or  four  of  flour  for  each  cup  of  liquid,  either  milk  or  milk 
and  stock. 

This  is  the  basis  of  souffles  and  croquettes. 

WHITE  SAUCE  may  be  varied  by  different  flavors  and  gar- 
nishes, such  as  capers,  celery,  mushrooms,  oysters,  lobsters, 
etc.,  etc. 

TOMATO  for  the  liquid  in  sauce  may  be  seasoned  with 
onion,  herbs  and  spices,  by  cooking  them  with  it  for  a  short 
time  before  straining. 

SPANISH  SAUCE  is  tomato  sauce  with  the  addition  of 
onion  and  peppers. 

DUTCH  OR  HOLLANDAISE  SAUCE:  To  one  cup  white  or 
milk  sauce  add  one  or  two  beaten  egg  yolks  and  cook  in 
double  boiler  like  custard.  Flavor  with  one  tablespoon  lemon 
juice. 

BROWN  SAUCE  FOR  ROAST  OR  PAN  BROILED  MEATS  :  After 
placing  the  meat  on  the  platter  drain  out  any  fat  in  the  pan 
and  put  some  water  to  soak  off  the  browned  juice  and  flour. 

For  each  cup  of  gravy  put  two  tablespoons  of  the  fat  in 
a  saucepan  and  brown  two  tablespoons  of  flour  in  it;  then 
add  one  cup  of  the  water  from  the  pan.  Cook  like  white 
sauce.  Season  as  desired  with  salt  and  pepper. 

OR,  Melt  and  brown  two  tablespoons  of  butter  in  a  sauce- 
pan ;  add  two  or  three  tablespoons  of  flour  and  continue 
the  browning.  When  coffee  color,  add  one  cup  water  or 
stock  or  milk. 

Welsh  Rarebit. 

Heat  one-half  cup  of  cream  in  the  blazier  of  a  chafing  dish 
or  in  a  skillet,  add  one  tablespoon  of  butter  creamed  with  one 
teaspoon  of  corn-starch,  one-fourth  teaspoon  of  salt,  and  a 
few  grains  of  cayenne.  When  thick,  set  over  the  hot  water 
or  heat  very  slowly  and  add  one-half  pound  of  soft  mild 
cheese  cut  up  fine  and  one-half  teaspoon  of  mushroom  ket- 
,  *  -  "  ,-  .  ,  ,  - 

14 


378 


/:hup  or  Worcestershire  sauce  or  one-fourth  teaspoon  of 
mustard.  Stir  until  the  cheese  is  melted  and  pour  over  crack- 
ers or  thin  toast. 

Cream  Soups. 

Cook  the  vegetable  till  soft  and  rub  through  a  strainer, 
using  all  or  a  part  of  the  water  in  which  the  vegetable  is 
cooked,  except  with  potatoes.  Combine  with  an  equal  quan- 
tity of  white  sauce  or  white  stock  or  mixture  of  the  two. 
Season.  If  too  thick,  add  hot  milk.  Beaten  egg  may  be 
added  just  before  serving  if  too  thin. 

Asparagus,  Carrots,  Cauliflower,  Celery,  Corn,  Cucum- 
bers, Lettuce,  Mushrooms,  Onions,  Spinach,  Summer 
Squash,  Turnips,  Water  Cress. 

CREAM  OF  PEAS.  BEANS,  LENTIL,  POTATO  and  other  thick 
soups  have  half  quantity  or  less  of  white  sauce  added  to 
keep  the  materials  from  settling. 

CREAM  OF  CHICKEN,  FISH,  etc.,  made  of  stock  from  bone, 
skin  and  other  inedible  portions  combined  with  about  equal 
quantities  of  hot  white  sauce  seasoned  in  various  ways. 

Corn  Starch  Blanc  Mange. 

Blend  two  tablespoons  cornstarch  with  an  equal  bulk  of 
milk,  heat  remainder  of  one  cup  milk  in  double  boiler.  Stir 
the  hot  milk  into  the  moistened  starch,  return  to  double 
boiler,  stir  on  stove  till  thick,  put  over  water,  cover  and 
cook  twenty  to  thirty  minutes  or  longer.  Add  two  table- 
spoons sugar,  a  bit  of  salt,  flavor  and  put  in  moulds. 

VARIATIONS  :  For  liquid  use  part  thin  cream  and  part 
strong  coffee,  or  all  fruit  juice. 

Put  layers  of  raw  or  cooked  fruit  alternately  with  the 
blanc  mange  in  the  moulds. 

Blend  two  tablespoons  of  cocoa  with  the  sugar  before  it 
i?  added  to  the  cornstarch  mixture. 

Irish  Moss  Blanc  Mange. 

To  soften  the  moss,  soak  one-half  cup  in  cold  water,  wash 
pick  over  and  cook  in  one  pint  of  water  in  a  double  boiler 
for  about  half  an  hour.  Strain  and  make  up  to  a  quart  with 
scalded  rich  milk  or  thin  cream ;  add  a  teaspoon  of  extract 


379 


flavoring  and  one-fourth  teaspoon  of  salt.  Or  cook  the 
softened  moss  directly  in  one  quart  of  milk,  season  and 
strain.  Put  in  molds. 

Use  of  Gelatine. 

One  level  tablespoon  granulated  gelatine  will  stiffen  about 
one  pint  liquid.  Different  makes  of  sheet,  shredded,  granu- 
lated and  powdered  gelatine  may  be  used  interchangeably 
by  weight.  A  larger  proportion  of  gelatine  is  required  for 
large  moulds  than  for  small.  A  little  salt  improves  most 
gelatine  combinations. 

Soak  gelatine  in  cold  water  until  soft,  dissolve  by  adding 
boiling  liquid,  sweeten  and  flavor  with  coffee,  lemon,  or 
other  fruit  juices  and  pulp.  Keep  the  proportions  of  gelatine 
and  total  liquid  right.  A  little  more  gelatine  is  required  in 
hot  weather,  unless  ice  is  used. 

Such  jellies  may  be  served  with  whipped  cream  or  boiled 
custard.  Every  package  of  gelatine  is  accompanied  with 
directions  for  its  use. 

Fruit  Pudding. 

Make  a  jelly  flavored  with  fruit  juice,  slightly  increasing 
the  proportion  of  gelatine.  As  it  begins  to  stiffen,  combine 
nearly  an  equal  amount  of  fruit  with  it.  With  each  half 
cup  of  jelly  may  be  used  one  date,  one-half  fig,  two  or  three 
almonds,  one-fourth  orange,  one-fourth  banana,  etc. 

Snow  Pudding  or  Fruit  Sponge. 

Beat  one  egg  stiff  and  add  one  cup  half  stiffened  jelly 
gradually.  Or,  beat  the  jelly  till  frothing  and  blend  the 
stiff  egg  with  that.  Mould  and  chill.  Serve  with  soft  cus- 
tard sauce  made  of  the  egg  yolks. 

Bavarian  Cream. 

Stiffen  a  soft  custard,  or  fruit  juice,  or  combination  of 
the  two,  with  gelatine.  As  it  begins  to  stiffen,  fold  in  stiff 
whipped  cream. 

Baked  Custards. 

Scald  one  pint  milk.  Beat  two  eggs  till  smooth,  add 
one-fourth  cup  sugar,  a  bit  of  salt,  and  blend  with  the  hot 
milk.  Strain  into  buttered  molds,  set  in  a  pan  of  hot  water 

16 


380 


and  bake  until  firm.  Put  a  thin  knife  blade  in  center  of 
custard  and  if  clone  no  milk  will  adhere  to  the  blade  as  it 
is  removed. 

The  same  proportions  may  be  used  for  custard  pies,  or 
may  be  combined  with  cooked  rice  for  a  pudding. 

Soft  Custard. 

Use  the  same  proportions  as  for  baked  custards,  or  three 
egg  yolks  in  place  of  two  whole  eggs.  Pour  hot  milk  over 
the  beaten  eggs,  stirring  constantly.  Sugar  may  be  added 
before  or  after  cooking  the  custard. 

Return  milk  and  egg  to  the  double  boiler  and  cook, 
stirring  all  the  time  until  the  custard  thickens  and  coats  the 
spoon,  three  minutes  or  longer.  If  cooked  too  long  the 
custard  will  curdle.  Cool  quickly.  Flavor  before  serving. 

Egg  Timbals. 

Use  only  one-fourth  to  one-half  cup  liquid,  milk  or  stock, 
for  each  egg.  Flavor  with  salt,  pepper,  etc.  Cook  like 
custards,  turn  from  mold  and  serve  hot  with  tomato  sauce. 

Thickened  Custards. 

Filling  for  Cream  Puffs,  Layer  Cake,  Sauces,  Ices,  etc. 

Make  a  smooth  paste  with  one-fourth  cup  flour  and  a 
little  milk  and  scald  the  remainder  of  one  pint  of  milk. 
When  it  is  hot,  blend  carefully  with  the  flour  and  cook  in 
a  double  boiler  twenty  minutes  or  more.  Then  combine 
with  the  beaten  yolks  of  two  or  three  eggs  and  stir  steadily 
while  cooking  three  to  five  minutes  longer.  Take  from  the 
fire  and  sweeten  and  flavor  according  to  its  use.  For 
filling  for  a  layer  cake  one-fourth  cup  sugar  may  serve, 
while  for  cream  puffs  one-half  cup  or  more  will  be  needed. 

The  same  foundation  may  be  combined  with  an  equal 
quantity  of  cream  or  of  fruit  juice,  or  of  each,  made  very 
sweet  and  frozen  as  ice  cream. 

Frozen  Desserts — General  Directions. 

All  mixtures  must  be  sweeter  and  more  highly  flavored 
than  if  served  without  freezing.  Cool  thoroughly  before 
packing  in  ice  and  salt.  Use  three  measures  fine  cracked 
ice  to  one  measure  of  salt. 

17 


381 


Lemon  Ice. 

Mix  in  proportion  of  the  juice  of  one  lemon,  one-fourth 
cup  of  sugar  and  one  cup  of  water.  Or,  make  a  quantity 
of  syrup,  4  measures  of  sugar  to  2  of  water,  and  use  4 
measures  of  syrup  to  I  of  fruit  juice.  Strain  into  a  tin  can 
or  straight  glass  jar  with  a  close  cover.  Pack  this  in  a 
pail  or  pan  with  ice  (or  snow)  and  salt.  Turn  the  can 
around  and  occasionally  scrape  down  the  ice  which  forms 
inside.  Use  other  fruit  juices  in  the  same  way — orange, 
pineapple,  raspberry— to  which  lemon  juice  is  usually  added, 
grape  juice  or  acid  jelly. 

Pineapple  Sherbet. 

One  can  of  grated  pineapple,  one  cup  of  sugar,  juice  of 
two  lemons,  one  tablespoon  of  powdered  gelatine,  one  quart 
of  water  or  milk. 

Ice  Cream. 

Scald  thin  cream  in  double  boiler,  dissolve  sugar  in 
the  proportion  of  one  cup  to  a  quart,  add  flavoring  when 
cool — extract,  one  tablespoon  to  a  quart.  This  is  "Phila- 
delphia" ice  cream.  Thickened  custard  made  very  sweet 
and  highly  flavored  is  often  called  "New  York"  ice  cream. 

Mousse  or  Parfait. 

Mix  together  one  cup  thick  cream,  two  tablespoons  pow- 
dered sugar  and  flavoring.  Whip  cream  with  egg  beater, 
skimming  off  froth  as  it  rises  and  draining  on  a  sieve. 
Return  liquid  to  bowl  and  whip  until  no  more  froth  will 
rise.  Turn  drained  froth  into  a  mould ;  cover,  and  bind  the 
lid  with  a  strip  of  muslin  dipped  into  melted  fat.  Bury  in 
ice  and  salt  for  three  to  four  hours  before  serving. 

Junket. 

The  active  principle  in  junket  is  reiinin  or  "rennet,"  which 
is  extracted  from  the  lining  of  calf's  stomach.  This  will 
coagulate  or  thicken  warm  milk  but  nothing  else.  Its  prop- 
erties are  destroyed  at  the  boiling  temperature  and  it  has 
no  action  in  the  cold.  Heat  two  cups  of  milk  to  body  tem- 
perature, 99  degrees,  powder  junket  tablet  and  dissolve  in 
a  little  water,  add  one-third  cup  of  sugar  dissolved  in  one- 

"From  Home  Science  Cook  Book. 

18 


382 


third  cup  of  warm  water  and  flavoring  extract.     Pour  into 
serving  dishes  and  keep  warm  until  set.    Cool. 

Caramel  syrup  or  maple  syrup  may  be  used  in  place  of 
sugar.     Chocolate  may  be  added  or  beaten  egg  yolks  with 
beaten  whites  on  top. 
Jellies. 

Pectin  is  the  gelatinizing  agent  in  jellies  and  jams.  It  is 
a  substance  similar  to  starch  and  is  found  in  most  fruits 
and  some  vegetables.  It  is  most  abundant  when  fruit  is  just 
ripe  or  nearly  so.  The  making  of  good  jelly  depends  on 
having  the  ccrreci  proportion  of  fruit  juice,  sugar,  and 
acid  and  on  boiling.  The  density  of  the  mixture  should 
be  between  24  degrees  and  30  degrees  as  measured  by  the 
syrup  gage  at  the  boiling  temperature,  and  the  boiling 
point  217  degrees  F.  or  103  degrees  C.  Long  boiling  alters 
the  gelatinizing  properties  of  pectin.  Too  great  a  propor- 
tion of  sugar  and  violent  boiling  cause  the  sugar  to  crys- 
tallize in  the  jelly. 

Pick  over  and  clean,  or  pare,  core  and  cut  up  large  fruits, 
heat  with  or  without  water  and  cook  until  very  soft.  Juicy 
fruits  like  currants  and  grapes  need  no  added  water,  while 
fruits  like  apples  should  be  barely  covered  with  w'ater. 
Strain  the  juice  from  the  pulp  through  cheese-cloth  or. 
flannel.  To  the  strained  juice  granulated  sugar  is  added 
usually  in  the  proportion  of  pint  to  pint,  but  good  jelly  may 
be  made  with  half  the  volume  of  sugar  to  juice.  The  pro- 
portion depends  on  the  acid  and  sugar  in  the  fruit.  Heat 
slowly  to  dissolve  sugar,  and  boil  gently  until  proper  density 
is  obtained,  skimming  froth  that  rises.  If  no  syrup  gauge 
is  used,  fest  by  dropping  a  little  on  a  cold  plate  to  see  if 
the  jellying  point  is  reached.  Pour  into  sterilized  glasses 
and  when  set  cover  with  melted  paraffine. 

The  pulp  may  be  squeezed  in  the  straining  bag  to  get  a 
marmalade  or  even  a  second  quality  jelly:  or,  better,  heat 
pulp  again  with  a  small  amount  of  water  and  strain  without 
pressure.  This  process  may  be  repeated.  Boil  down  some- 
what and  add  sugar  and  finish  as  before.  Jelly  may  be  made 
from  parings  and  cores. 

As  the  presence  of  acid  is  essential  to  make  the  materials 
jelly, lemon  or  currant  juice  is  usually  added  to  sweet  flavored 

19 


383 


fruits.  (Summary  of  the  result  of  experiments  made  by  Dr. 
Goldthwaite  at  University  of  Illinois-  and  Miss  Snow  at 
University  of  Chicago). 

Soft  Cooked  Eggs. 

Place  eggs  in  one  cup  of  boiling  water  to  each  egg  in  a 
saucepan,  cover  and  remove  from  the  fire. 

From  five  to  ten  minutes  will  be  required  according  to 
the  firmness  desired. 

Or,  put  one  egg  in  one  cup  of  cold  water  and  bring  slowly 
to  the  boiling  point.    Then  remove  the  egg. 
Hard  Cooked  Eggs. 

Keep  eggs  in  water  just  below  the  boiling  point  for  thirty 
minutes.  The  yolks  should  be  dry  enough  to  mash  easily. 
Such  eggs  are  suitable  for  salads — may  be  warmed  in  any 
well  flavored  sauce,  may  be  stuffed  by  blending  the  yolks 
with  chopped  meat  or  nuts  or  seasoning  of  any  kind. 

THICKENING  AND  LEAVENING. 
Omelets. 

There  are  but  two  types  of  omelet  to  which  special  names 
are  given  from  the  garnish  added. 
French  Omelet. 

Beat  an  egg  slightly.  Add  one  tablespoon  water  or  milk, 
season  with  salt  and  a  dash  of  pepper.  Turn  into  a  hot 
buttered  frying  pan,  which  must  be  perfectly  clean  and 
smooth.  Lift  cooked  portions  with  a  fork.  Shake  the  pan 
to  prevent  adhesion.  When  all  is  firm,  fold  and  serve  at 
once. 
Puffy  Omelet. 

Separate  white  and  yolk  of  one  egg.  Beat  white  stiff, 
add  yolk  and  blend  together.  Add  salt,  pepper  and  one 
tablespoon  of  water  or  milk.  Turn  into  buttered  pan  and 
place  where  it  will  cook  slowly  and  evenly.  When  firm, 
fold  and  serve. 

Two  tablespoons  of  white  sauce  or  bread  softened  in 
milk  may  be  used  instead  of  one  of  milk  or  water.  Chopped 
parsley,  or  other  vegetable,  any  nice  bits  of  meat  or  fish, 
cheese',  jelly,  etc.,  may  be  folded  into  the  onielet  just  before 
serving.  ^ 

20 


384 


Meringues  or  Kisses. 

Beat  egg  whites  with  a  speck  of  cream  of  tartar.  When 
stiff  fold  in  one-fourth  cup  powdered  sugar  for  each  white. 
Flavor  slightly,  drop  on  ungreased  paper,  and  bake  slowly 
until  dry,  thirty  minutes  or  more. 

For  soft  meringues  on  puddings,  use  half  as  much  sugar. 
Fruit  Souffles. 

For  each  stiffly  beaten  egg  white  fold  in  one- fourth  cup 
thick,  sweetened  fruit  pulp,  or  marmalade,  or  jam.  Partly 
fill  buttered  molds,  and  bake  like  custards,  until  firm. 

Serve  with  soft  custard  as  a  sauce. 
Sponge  Cakes. 

Equal  measures  of  eggs,  sugar  and  flour,  or  the  weight 
of  the  eggs  in  sugar,  and  half  of  the  weight  of  the  eggs  in 
flour.  This  also  applies  to  the  use  of  egg  whites  only  as 
in  angel  cakes. 

In  other  words,  two  large  or  three  small  eggs  rightly 
blended  with  one-half  cup  each  of  sugar  and  flour  and 
carefully  flavored  and  baked  slowly  will  produce  such  a 
cake  as  that  shown  on  page  65. 

The  yolks  of  the  eggs  should  be  beaten  until  thicker  and 
lighter  colored  than  when  beginning  the  process.  To  them 
add  the  sugar,  one  or  two  teaspoons  of  lemon  juice  and  a 
bit  of  grated  rind.  Over  the  whites  of  the  eggs  sprinkle 
a  bit  of  salt  and  beat  until  stiff.  Fold  them  into  the  yolks 
and  gradually  sift  the  half  cup  of  flour  over,  blending  care- 
fully without  stirring.  .  Put  into  the  pans  and  bake  in  a 
gentle  heat  for  twenty  minutes,  if  in  small  cakes;  twice  as 
long  if  in  one  mass. 
Cream  Puffs. 

In  a  saucepan  heat  one-half  cup  water  with  two  ounces 
of  butter  or  less.  When  boiling  hot  mix  in  one-half  cup 
of  flour  and  continue  to  stir  while  it  cooks  into  a  smooth 
mass.  Cool  till  it  will  not  cook  eggs  and  mix  in  one  egg 
and  a  second  and  beat  the  whole  vigorously  with  the  spoon. 
Shape  on  greased  pan  some  distance  from  each  other  in 
six  to  twelve  mounds  and  bake  about  thirty  minutes  ac- 
cording to  the  size.  They  should  be  light  and  dry  when 
taken  from  the*  pan,  otherwise  they  will  shrink  and  be 
heavy. 

21 


385 


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LEAVENING  AND  SHORTENING. 
Biscuit. 

Two  cups  sifted  flour,  three  teaspoons  of  baking  powder, 
one-half  teaspoon  of  salt ;  sift  together,  rub  in  one  table- 
spoon of  shortening — butter,  oleo,  lard,  cottolene  or  drip- 
pings. Mix  to  a  soft  dough  with  about  two-thirds  cup 
of  milk  or  water.  Turn  onto  a  floured  board,  roll  and  pat 
gently  to  three-quarters  inch  thick,  cut  and  bake.  Pastry 
flour  make  more  delicate  biscuits  than  bread  flour. 

DUMPLINGS  FOR  STEWS  :  Omit  shortening,  add  milk  until 
dough  may  be  dropped  from  the  spoon  into  boiling  stew. 
Cover  tightly  and  cook  rapidly  10  minutes. 

SHORTCAKE:  Rub  in  one-fourth  cup  of  butter  in  biscuit 
mixture.  Cut  like  biscuit  for  individual  shortcakes  or  use 
a  square  pan  and  divide  with  knife  dipped  in  melted  butter 
so  that  portions  may  separate  readily  after  baking. 

Use  shortcake  mixture  for  covering  to  meat  pies,  apple 
dumplings,  .etc. 

Muffins. 

Two  cups  of  sifted  flour,  two  teaspoons  of  baking  powder, 
one-half  teaspoon  of  salt,  one  tablespoon  of  sugar;  sift  and 
add  one  tablespoon  of  shortening  melted,  one  beaten  egg  and 
one  cup  of  milk.  Beat  together  thoroughly  and  bake  in  a 
quick  oven. 

BLUEBERRY  MUFFINS:  Use  a  little  less  milk  in  muffin 
mixture  and  add  one  cup  of  blueberries  and  a  little  more 
sugar.  Chopped  apples  or  other  fruit  may  be  used  in  same 
way. 

TEA  MUFFINS:  In  the  above  muffin  mixture  use  one- 
fourth  cup  of  sugar  and  of  butter  and  add  two  more  eggs. 

Drop  Cakes. 

One  and  one-half  cups  of  graham  flour,  one-half  teaspoon 
each  of  salt  and  soda,  and  one-fourth  cup  of  brown  sugar; 
sift  together  and  mix  with  three-fourths  cup  of  thick  sour 
milk  into  stiff  batter  which  drop  from  a  spoon  onto  a 
greased  pan  or  in  heated  gem  pans  and  bake  quickly  12  to 
15  minutes.  Sweet  milk  and  two  teaspoons  of  baking  powder 
may  be  substituted  as  well  as  rye  and  other  flours. 

23 


387 


Cereal  Gems. 

Use  even  quantities  of  flour  and  softened  cooked  break- 
fast food,  one  teaspoon  of  baking  powder  to  a  cup  of  ma- 
terial ;  add  sufficient  milk  to  make  a  batter  which  will  drop 
from  the  spoon.  Mix  thoroughly  and  bake  in  hot  buttered 
gem  pans. 

Boston  Brown  Bread. 

Sift  together  one  cup  of  cornmeal,  one  cup  of  rye  meal, 
or  entire  wheat  flour,  one  teaspoon  of  soda,  one-half  tea- 
spoon salt.  Mix  with  one-half  cup  molasses  and  one  cup 
sour  milk.  If  not  soft  enough  to  smooth  out  in  the  bowl, 
add  a  little  water.  Put  in  greased  tins  with  tight  cover 
and  steam  three  hours  or  more. 

Corn  Cake. 

Use  one  cup  cornmeal,  one  cup  flour,  one-half  teaspoon 
of  salt,  one  tablespoon  of  sugar,  three  teaspoons  baking 
powder;  sift  together  and  add  one  egg,  one  cup  of  sour 
milk  and  one  tablespoon  of  shortening.  Bake  in  pan  20  to 
30  minutes,  according  to  thickness,  or  in  muffin  pans. 

The  cornmeal  may  be  scalded  with  an  equal  volume  of 
boiling  water ;  let  cool,  and  more  shortening,  sugar  and  two 
more  eggs  may  be  added. 

Griddle  Cakes. 

Sift  together  two  cups  of  flour,  three  teaspoons  of  baking 
powder  and  one  teaspoon  each  of  salt  and  sugar;  add  two 
eggs  well  beaten  and  one  and  one-half  cups  of  milk  grad- 
'Ually  and  two  tablespoons  of  melted  butter.  Beat  well  and 
add  more  milk  until  the  batter  is  as  thick  as  thick  cream. 
Beat  vigorously  before  each  frying. 

Fry  on  hot  griddle,  grease  with  rind  of  pork  or  ham. 
Drop  batter  from  end  of  the  spoon,  making  circular  cakes. 
Turn  when  full  of  bubbles. 

Waffles. 

Are  cooked  on  a  waffle  iron,  using  the  griddle  cake  mix- 
ture with  an  extra  egg  added. 

24 


388 


Plain  Cake  ("Lightning"  Cake). 

Place  the  flour  sifter  in  the  mixing  bowl  and  put  in  it  one 
and  one-half  cups  of  flour,  three-fourths  cup  of  fine  granu- 
lated sugar,  two  level  teaspoons  of  baking  powder,  one-half 
teaspoon  of  salt.  Sift  into  the  bowl. 

In  the  measuring  cup,  melt  one-fourth  cup  of  butter  (or 
oleo),  break  in  two  eggs,  fill  up  the  cup  with  milk.  Add 
one-half  teaspoon  flavoring  extract  or  saltspoon  of  spice. 
Mix  with  the  dry  ingredients  and  beat  well  two  or  three 
minutes.  Bake  in  sheet  or  greased  muffin  tins  in  quick 
oven. 

VARIATIONS  :  Add  two  tablespoons  of  cocoa,  or  an  ounce 
of  melted  chocolate.  Use  one  cup  caramel  or  maple  syrup 
in  place  of  sugar.  Leave  out  part  of  the  sugar  for  Cottage 

Pudding. 

• 

Cookies. 

Cream,  one-half  cup  of  butter,  adding  gradually  one  cup 
of  sugar;  add  one  egg  and  beat  well.  Now  mix  in,  a  little 
at  a  time,  one-third  cup  of  milk  and  two  cups  of  flour  sifted 
with  two  teaspoons  of  baking  powder.  Add  more  flour,  from 
one  to  two  cups,  depending  on  the  absorbing  power  of  the 
flour,  to  make  a  soft  dough,  which  rpll  out  thin,  and  cut 
with  cookie  cutter  in  fancy  shapes.  Bake  in  a  quick  oven  10 
minutes. 

VARIATIONS  :  Before  all  the  flour  is  added,  divide  into 
four  portions ;  to  one  add  one  teaspoon  of  lemon  extract, 
to  another  one-half  cup  of  desiccated  cocoanut ;  one-half 
ounce  of  chocolate  melted,  or  a  teaspoon  of  cocoa,  sifted  in 
with  a  little  flour;  to  the  fourth,  one  teaspoon  of  mixed 
spice  and  one-half  cup  of  chopped  raisins,  etc.  Or  flavor 
the  portions  with  ginger,  almond  with  chopped  almonds  on 
top,  or  with  dates,  figs,  nuts.  Or  use  less  flour  and  drop 
from  a  spoon  for  a  soft  thick  cake. 

Gingerbread. 

Two  cups  of  flour,  one-half  teaspoon  of  salt  and  of  soda, 
one  teaspoon  of  ginger ;  sift  together  and  mix  with  one  cup 
of  molasses  and  one-half  cup  of  hot  water  in  which  two  table- 
spoons of  fat  is  melted.  Bake  in  a  moderate  oven  twenty 
minutes  or  more, 

25 


389 


Doughnuts.* 

Sift  together  four  cups  of  flour,  one  teaspoon  of  salt, 
three  teaspoons  of  baking  powder,  one-half  teaspoon  of 
mixed  spice  and  one  cup  of  sugar.  Mix  with  one  egg  and 
one  cup  of  milk. 

Sour  milk  and  soda  may  be  used  in  place  of  baking  pow- 
der. For  richer  doughnuts,  two  eggs  and  one  tablespoon  of 
butter  may  be  used. 

Plain  Pastry.* 

Sift  two  cups  of  flour  with  one-half  teaspoon  of  salt  and 
cut  in  with  a  knife,  one-fourth  cup  or  two  ounces  of  short- 
ening. Mix  with  about  one-half  cup  of  ice  water  into  a 
stiff  dough.  Roll  out  and  spread  with  one  ounce'  of  butter, 
fold  and  add  a  second  ounce  of  butter  in  the  same  way, 
making  one-half  cup  of  shortening  in  all.  For  upper  crusts 
more  shortening  may  be  rolled  in  if  desired.  Keep  every- 
thing as  cool  as  possible.  The  lightne'ss  of  the  pastry  de- 
pends on  the  amount  and  coolness  of  the  air  enclosed  and 
the  flakiness  on  the  number  of  layers  of  fat  and  dough  .pro- 
duced by  folding  and  rolling. 

YEAST   DOUGHS— GENERAL   PROPORTIONS. 


SUGAR 

SHORT- 
ENING 

LIQUID 

YEAST 
CAKE 

FLOUR 

EGGS 

Bread 

I  tsp 

/>  oz.  + 

i  cup 

j/4  tO  I 

7  CUPS 

Muffins.  .  .  . 
Rolls 

I  tbs. 
I  tbs 

l/2  OZ. 
I  OZ. 

I  CUp 

i  cup 

y+  to  i 
y\  to  i- 

2  Clips 

^  cups 

)  + 

Fancy  Rolls  . 
Buns  

2  tbs. 
^/->  cup 

2  OZ. 
2  OZ. 

I  CUp 
I  CUp 

y4toi 
y4  to  i 

3  cups  '+ 
3  cups  4- 

i  + 

Coffee  Cake 

y4  cup 

20Z. 

y*  cup 

Mtoi 

2  Clips 

2  + 

390 


Bread — Short  Process. 

-  For  each  loaf,  use  one  cup  of  milk  scalded  or  half  rriilk 
and  half  hot  water,  or  all  warm  water,  one-half  teaspoon 
of  salt  and  of  sugar,  one-half  or  more  compressed  yeast 
cake,  softened  with  luke  warm  water,  and  about  three  cups 
of  bread  flo.u-.  Mix  well  and  kneed  until  the  dough  is 
smooth  and  springy.  The  dough  should  now  be  warm.  Let 
rise  till  double,  shape,  put  in  pan  and  let  rise  again  and  bake. 
Or  this  amount  of  dough  may  be  shaped  into  a  dozen  or 
two  dozen  small  rolls  before  final  rising. 

Entire  Wheat  Bread. 

Scald  one  cup  of  milk;  in  it  melt  one  teaspoon  of  butter 
and  half  a  teaspoon  each  of  sugar  and  salt.  When  luke- 
warm, add  half  a  cake  of  compressed  yeast,  softened  in 
one-fourth  cup  of  warm  water.  Stir  in  between  two  and 
three  cups  of  flour  to  make  a  dough  stiff  enough  to  hold 
its  shape.  Mix  thoroughly  with  a  knife,  but  do  not  knead 
it  until  after  it  has  risen  to  double  its  bulk,  then  shape  into 
small  loaves,  let  rise  until  double  in  size,  bake  in  hot  oven 
about  half  an  hour. 

One-fourth  cup  of  molasses  may  be  used  in  place  of  the 
sugar  if  preferred. 

Rolls — Long  Process. 

For  rolls  or  two  loaves  of  bread,  put  into  the  mixing  bowl 
one  tablespoon  of  butter  or  lard,  one  tablespoon  of  sugar, 
one  teaspoon  of  salt  and  one  pint  of  scalded  milk.  When  luke- 
warm, add  one  quarter  yeast  cake  softened  in  water  ana  three 
cups  of  flour.  Cover  and  let  rise.  In  the  morning,  add  to 
this  sponge  about  three  cups  of  flour  to  make  thick  enough 
to  knead.  Let  rise  till  double,  shape,  put  in  pans,  rise  again 
and  bake. 

MUFFINS  :  Add  two  or  three  eggs  to  the  sponge,  but  no 
more  flour.  Bake  in  muffin  pans. 

Coffee  Cake. 

Work  into  one  pint  of  light  dough,  two-thirds  cuj?  of 
white  sugar,  one  egg,  and  two  ounces  of  melted  butter, 
thoroughly  to  a  creamy,  smooth  batter  by  beating, 


m 


Pour  into  shallow  pan  and  let  rise  again.  Sift  sugar  and 
cinnamon  over  the  top  and  bake  in  a  quick  oven.  Serve 
warm. 


Use  of  Stale  Bread. 
Bread  Cases. 

Cut  slices  of  bread  two  inches  thick  and  three  inches 
long.  Remove  part  of  crumbs  from  the  center,  leaving  a 
hollow  space.  Spread  with  butter  and  brown  in  the  oven. 

Croutons. 

Cut  stale  bread  into  slices  about  one-third  inch  thick  and 
then  in  cubes.  Bake  in  moderate  oven  until  golden  brown. 

Dry  Crumbs. 

Crusts  remaining  from  croutons,  etc.,  should  be  dried 
in  the  oven,  rolled  and  sifted,  the  fine  ones  used  for  cro- 
quettes, etc.,  the  coarser  for  stuffing  or  escalloped  dishes. 

Cracker  crumbs  may  be  used  in  the  same  way. 

Buttered  Crumbs. 

Melt  butter  and  stir  in  crumbs  till  the  butter  is  evenly 
distributed. 

One  ounce  of  butter  for  one  cup  of  crumbs  is  a  fair  pro- 
portion. Buttered  crumbs  seasoned  and  moistened  are  used 
for  stuffing  peppers,  tomatoes,  fish,  poultry,  etc. 

Filling  for  Fish  or  Fowl. 

One  cup  of  crumbs  will  serve  for  a  small  fish  or  chicken, 
while  a  large  fowl  or  turkey  will  require  two  or  three. 
With  each  cup  of  crumbs  blend  one  ounce  or  more  of  butter 
or  chopped  fat  salt  pork,  one  teaspoon  parsley  or  mixed 
herbs,  one-half  teaspoon  salt  and  a  little  pepper.  Moisten 
with  milk,  water  or  stock.  For  fish  season  also  with  lemon 
and  onion  juice. 

Mashed  potato  or  chestnuts  may  be  used  instead  of 
crumbs.  .. ..--' 

28 


392 


Fat — To  Try  Out  and  Clarify. 

Cut  the  fat — beef  suet  or  flank  fat— in  small  pieces,  re- 
moving skin  and  bits  of  lean  meat.  Cover  with  cold  salted 
water  and  leave  in  a  cold  place  for  several  hours.  Drain 
off  the  water,  and  if  possible  soak  again,  and  drain.  Cook 
slowly  in  moderate  oven  or  in  upper  part  of  the  double 
boiler  till  the  fat  has  melted  and  the  scraps  are  crisp,  but 
not  brown.  Strain  and  cool.  Slices  of  raw  potato  or  pieces 
of  charcoal  cooked  in  the  fat  before  straining  will  absorb 
any  impurities. 

Beef,  pork  and  chicken  fat  may  be  combined.  Surplus  fat 
from  roast  beef,  corned  beef,  etc.,  may  be  added. 

Such  fat  may  be  used  for  shortening  muffins,  ginger- 
bread, etc.,  for  greasing  pans,  for  some  sauces  and  soups,, 
or  for  deep  frying.  Mutton  fat  may  be  prepared  to  add  to 
fry  fat. 

Fat  from  bacon,  ham  or  sausages  should  "be  reserved  for 
hashes  or  warming  over  potatoes. 

MEATS. 
Broiled  Meats,  Chops,  Steaks. 

The  meat  should  be  cut  in  convenient  pieces,  and  some 
of  the  bone,  gristle  and  fat  removed.  Sections  one  inch 
thick  will  be  more  juicy  than  thinner  ones.  Wipe  the  meat 
with  a  damp  cloth,  grease  the  broiler  or  pan  with  a  piece  of 
the  fat,  or  brush  melted  fat  over  the  meat.  Place  the  meat 
where  intense  heat  will  reach  it. at  first,  under  the  gas  flame, 
or  in  a  hot  pan  on  top  of  the  stove,  or  over  hot  coals.  "Turn 
often  at  first,  every  half  minute  if  directly  over  the  coals, 
until  well  seared  and  browned  on  both  sides,  then  move  it 
farther  away  from  the  fire  so  the  heat  may  penetrate  to 
the  center  without  burning  the  outside. 

As  the  meat  is  seared  on  the  surface  the  juices  are  driven 
towards  the  center,  and  expanding  with  the  heat  tend  to 
make  the  surface  of  the  meat  puff  outward.  This  is  very 
apparent  between  the  wires  of  a  double  broiler  and  probably 
is  the  best  indication  that  the  meat  is  cooked. 

Steaks  one  incji  thick  should  cook  in  five  or  six  minutes 
to  be  rare,  eight  or  ten  minutes  to  be  well  done,  the  time 

29 


varying  according  to  the  method  of  cooking  and  intensity 
of  heat.  Mutton  chops  may  be  served  rare,  lamb  usually 
well  done,  veal  and  pork  always  must  be  thoroughly  cooked. 

Broiled  meats  should  be  served  'at  once  on  a  hot  dish 
and  with  slight  seasoning  beside  their  own  juices.  If  kept 
hot  the  cooking  is  continued  too  far. 

Fish  and  chicken  may  be  partially  broiled  arid  then  fin- 
ished in  the  oven.  Apply  the  direct  heat  mainly  to  the  cut 
inside  surface,  as  the  skin  burns  easily. 

Roast  Meats. 

Trim,  wipe,  score  the  fat  portion  and  rub  salt  into  that, 
place  on  rack  in  pan,  sprinkle  flour  all  over  it,  put  skin  side 
down.  Have  oven  very  hot  at  first  to  sear  outside  quickly 
to  prevent  escape  of  juice,  then  "reduce  heat.  Baste  occa- 
sionally as  needed  'with  the  fat  which  cooks  out  into  the 
pan,  and  turn  the  roast  over  to  cook  it  evenly. 

If  there  is  danger  of  burning  put  some  water  in  the  pan 
after  the  meat  is  seared,  but  this  is  not  necessary  if  heat  of 
oven  is  lowered. 

A  sirloin  or  rib  roast,  weighing  five  pounds  will  require 
about  one  hour,  or  longer,  if  it  is  to  be  well  done.  A  surer 
rule  for  time  of  cooking  is  to  allow  fifteen  minutes  for  each 
inch  in  thickness,  or  twenty  minutes  if  wanted  well  done. 

Braised  Beef. 

Use  a  thick  section  of  the  lower  part  of  the  round,  two 
to  four  pounds.  Trim,  wipe  and  sprinkle  with  flour,  season 
with  salt  and  pepper.  Brown  under  the  gas  or  in  hot  fat. 
Put  in  casserole,  partly  cover  with  water  or  brown  or 
tomato  sauce.  Cover  closely  and  cook  in  very  slow  oven 
three  to  five  hours. 

Meat  Stew. 

Neck  or  breast  of  lamb,  of  veal  or  inexpensive  cuts  of 
beef  may  be  used  in  this  way.  Cover  bones  with  coid  water 
and  heat  slowly.  Cut  meat  in  convenient  pieces,  roll  in 
flour  seasoned  with  salt  and  pepper,  Fry  bits  of  fat,  then 

30 


394 


brown  sections  of  prepared  meat  and  onion  if  desired.  Put 
meat  in  kettle  with  bones  when  water  is  hot. 

When  nearly  tender  add  -carrot,  turnip,  peppers,  or  celery 
cut  in  small  shapes  about  one  cup  each  to  one  pound  of 
meat. 

Potatoes  pared  and  cut  in  quarters  may  be  added  20  to  30 
minutes  before  serving,  and  dumplings  10  minutes  before 
serving. 

Escalloped  Fish  or  Meat. 

Equal  measures  of  cooked  minced  meat,  bread  crumbs 
and  white  or  tomato  sauce ;  -or,  for  one  measure  of  meat, 
half  as  much  sauce  and  one-fourth  as  much  buttered  crumbs. 
(Boiled  rice  or  macaroni  may  be  used  instead  of  crumbs.) 

Remove  all  uneatable  portions  from  meat  and  mince  or 
chop.     Put  in  layers  in  a  butterejd  dish,  having  crumbs  for 
the  last.     Bake  until  heated  through  and  brown  on  top. 
Fish  or  Meat  Loaf,  or  Timbales. 

Remove  skin,  gristle  and  bone  from  meat  or  fish  and 
mince  fine.  Combine  with  an  equal  quantity  of  bread 
crumbs  or  stuffing  from  a  baked  fish  or  roast  fowl,  season  as 
desired,  moisten  with  milk  or  stock.  Add  one  beaten  egg 
or  more  to  each  pint  of  the  mixture.  Pack  in  buttered 
moulds,  steam  or  bake  until  firm  in  center.  Turn  out  and 
serve  with  sauce. 
Meat  Loaf  in  Rice. 

Line  a  mould  with  well-cooked  rice.  Fill  with  the  meat 
prepared  as  above.  Cover  with  rice.  Steam  an  hour.  Serve 
with  tomato  sauce. 

Fish  Balls. 

In  a  stew  pan  put  one  pint  potatoes,  pared  and  quartered, 
and  one  cup  salt  cod  fish  which  has  been  picked  apart  in 
cold  water.  Cover  with  boiling  water  and  cook  until  the 
potatoes  are  soft.  Drain  in  a  colander  till  no  water  can 
be  shaken  out.  Return  to  pan,  mash  thoroughly,  add  salt 
if  needed,  a  shake*  of  pepper,  one  teaspoon  butter,  one  raw 
egs:,  and  beat  all  together.  Shape  on  a  spoon  or  in  small 
balls  and  fry  in  deep  fat,  hot  enough  to  brown  them  in  one 
minute.  Drain  on  soft  paper. 

31 


395 


CEREALS  AND  VEGETABLES. 
Breakfast  Foods. 

Usual  proportions — one-half  cup  flakes  or  one-fourth  cup 
granules  to  one  cup  water,  one-fourth  teaspoon  salt  to  one 
cup  water. 

The  denser  the  cereal,  the  more  water  and  the  longer  the 
time  required. 

Bring  water  to  boiling  point  in  upper  part  of  double 
boiler,  placed  directly  on  the  stove. 

Pour  cereal  slowly  into  boiling  water,  stirring  constantly. 
Let  boiling  continue  about  five  minutes  till  mixture  begins 
to  thicken.  Place  over  boiling  water  in  lower  part  of  the 
boiler.  Cover  and  cook  gently  with  little  stirring  one  hour 
or  more,  or  till  tender  and  soft.  Or  put  in  Fireless  Cooker 
for  three  hours. 

Serve  hot,  with  or  without  sugar,  with  milk,  cream  or 
butter.  Put  in  moulds  with  fruit  and  serve  cold  as  dessert. 
Pack  solidly  in  loaf  shape,  slice  when  cold,  brown  in  hot 
fat,  serve  hot. 

Corn  Meal  Mush. 

Mix  one  cup  cornmeal,  one-fourth  cup  of  flour,  one  tea- 
spoon salt,  one  cup  cold  milk  or  water.  When  smooth 
blend  with  one  pint  boiling  water,  stir  for  about  five  min- 
utes. When  thick  place  over  water  or  in  steamers  and 
cook  one  hour  or  more.  Serve  hot  or  pack  in  pan  to  fry, 
or  dip  in  fat  and  toast  under  the  gas. 

Rice. 

Pick  over  and  wash  thoroughly  or  parboil  five  minutes 
and  drain.  Then  put  in  a  buttered  dish  with  twice  its  bulk 
of  boiling  water  and  set  in  a  steam  cooker.  In  three- 
quarters  of  an  hour  it  should  be  tender  and  every  kernel 
distinct,  and  it  may  be  cooked  longer  without  becoming 
mushy. 

Rice  Croquettes. 

With  one  pint  of  cooked  rice  (if  cold,  reheated)  blend 
one  tablespoon  butter  and  one  or  two  beaten  egg  yolks. 
Season  with  salt,  pepper  and  parsley,  or  with  sugar  and 

32 


396 


spice.      Divide   in   ten   or   twelve    portions,   press    in   firm 
shape,  roll  in  egg  and. crumbs,  and  fry  in  deep  fat. 

Boston  Baked  Beans. 

Soak  one  pint  beans  over  night.  Parboil  in  the  morning 
until  the  skins  crack  readily  with  a  slight  pressure.  A 
very  little  soda  may  be  put  into  the  water  to  help  this 
process.  Score  the  rind  of  one-fourth  pound  fat  salt  pork 
and  rinse  it.  Drain  the  beans  and  put  part  in  the  t>ean  pot, 
then  the  pork  and  cover  with  the  beans,  leaving  only  a 
little  of  the  pork  rind  exposed.  Mix  one  teaspoon  of  salt, 
one-fourth  teaspoon  of  mustard  and  a  tablespoon  or  more 
of  molasses  as  desired,  add  water  and  pour  over  the  beans. 
Cover  and  bake  twelve  hours  or  more,  keeping  the  beans 
filled  up  with  water  until  the  last  hour,  when  the  cover 
should  be  removed  and  the  pork  rind  and  the  top  layer  of 
beans  should  brown. 

Potatoes. 
Baked. 

Choose  those  of  equal  size  and  scrub  with  brush.  Cook  in 
hot  oven  30  to  40  minutes,  or  until  soft.  Then  crack  the 
skin  to  let  out  steam.  The  potato  should  be  plump  (not 
^shriveled),  and  the  inside  white  and  mealy. 

Boiled. 

Wash,  pare  if  imperfect  or  old.  If  not  of  uniform  size, 
divide  the  larger  ones.  Put  in  boiling  salted  water  and 
cook  for  20  to  30  minutes,  till  tender.  Drain  off  the  water 
and  shake  the  uncovered  kettle  to  let  the  steam  escape. 

Riced. 

Put  boiled  potatoes  through  strainer  or  ricer  into  a  hot 
dish  from  which  they  are  to  be  served. 

Mashed. 

In  a  hot  pan  mash  boiled  potatoes.  For  each  half  pint, 
add  two  tablespoons  milk,  one  teaspoon  butter,  season  with 
salt  and  pepper. 

33 


397 


Croquettes* 

Prepare  mashed  potato  with  less  milk  and  one  egg  yolk 
for  each  half  pint  and  season  with  celery  salt,  paprika  and 
parsley.  Roll  in  crumbs,  egg  and  crumbs,  and  fry  in  deep 
fat. 

Stuffed  Potatoes. 

Cut  a  slice  from  end  of  baked  potatoes,  scrape  out  inside, 
mash  and  season.    Add  chopped  meat,  cheese  or  parsley  for 
variety.    Refill  skins  and  reheat  in  oven. 
Canoes,  or  Potatoes  on  the  Half  Shell. 

Cut  the  potatoes  in  two  lengthwise,  refill  each  part  and 
brown. 

Creamed. 

Cut  boiled  potatoes  in  cubes  or  slices  and  reheat  in  thin 
white  sauce,  one-half  cup  to  each  cup  of  potato. 
Hash. 

Use  two  parts  potato  to  one  part  meat,  or  equal  amounts 
of  each.  Chop  meat,  chop  or  mash  potato.  Season  with 
salt,  pepper,  onion,  etc.,  moisten  with  gravy  or  water.  For 
one  cup  hash,  put  one  tablespoon  fat  in  a  frying  pan.  When 
hot,  put  in  the  hash"  and  cook  slowly,  without  stirring,  until 
a  brown  crust  forms  on  the  bottom.  Fold  like  an  omelet. 
French  Hash. 

Put  meat  and  gravy  in  a  deep  dish,  cover  with  mashed 
potato  and  bake  till  golden  brown. 

SUGAR. 
Caramel. 

Put  sugar  in  a  smooth  iron  pan  over  a  hot  fire  and  stir 
constantly  with  an  old  wooden  spoon  until  melted  to  a  light 
brown  syrup.  Scrape  off  any  sugar  that  forms  in  lumps. 
When  all  is  melted  add  an  equal  amount  of  boiling  water 
and  simmer  a  few  moments  until  blended  into  a  thick  syrup. 

A  quantity  of  this  may  be  made  at  once  and  kept  on  hand 
to  flavor  and  swreeten  custards  and  ice  cream,  or  to  serve  as 
a  sauce  with  other  puddings. 

If  it  should  happen  to  brown  beyond  the  shade  of  good 
maple  syrup,  let  it  go  a  little  further  until  the  sweet  flavor 

34 


398 


would  be  lost.    Then  dissolve  as  above  and  bottle  to  use  for 
coloring  soups  and  meat  gravies. 

Syrup. 

Combine  equal  quantities  of  water  and  sugar  in  a  sauce- 
pan and  stir  until  dissolved.  Boil  five  to  ten  minutes  until 
only  slightly  reduced  in  quantity.  Can  while  hot  in  small 
jars  and  keep  on  hand  to  sweeten  fruit  drinks  or  ices  as  the 
'dissolving  of  the  sugar  in  cold  liquids  is  a  slow  and  unsat- 
isfactory process. 

Fondant. 

In  an  agate  saucepan  put  one  cup  granulated  sugar,  about 
one-sixteenth  of  a  teaspoon  of  cream  of  tartar — a  bit  the 
size  of  a  small  pea — and  one-half  cup  of  hot  water.  Stir 
till  sugar,  is  dissolved,  then  cover  and  cook  without  stirring. 
Skim  and  wipe  the  sides  of  the  pan  if  necessary.  Boil 
about  ten  minutes  or  till  238  to  240  degrees  F.,  when  it  will 
form  a  soft  ball  in  cold  water.  Turn  into  a  greased  bowl 
or  platter  and  cool  slightly.  It  will  grain  if  stirred  while 
too  warm.  Beat  and  knead  till  a  smooth,  creamy  mass.  If- 
it  hardens  too  rapidly  dip  the  hands  in  water  and  continue 
the  kneading. 

Pack  away  in  covered  dish  for  a  day  or  longer,  then  shape 
as  desired.  Colors  and  flavors  must  be  very  concentrated. 
By  combination  with  chocolate,  dates,  figs,  nuts,  etc.,  a 
'great  variety  of  candies  may  be  secured.  This  fondant  is 
a  very  satisfactory  frosting  for  cake  and  may  be  kept  on 
hand.  Warm  it  over  water  until  it  can  be  spread  on  the 
cake. 

Boiled  Frostings. 

Cook  one  cup  of  sugar  with  one-half  cup  of  water  or 
less,  and  a  bit  of  cream  of  tartar  until  it  will  thread,  not 
quite  reaching  the  soft  ball  stage.  Then  pour  slowly  on 
the  stiffly  beaten  white  of  one  egg  and  continue  beating 
until  cool  enough  to  spread.  Much  depends  on  the  moisture 
in  the  atmosphere  as  well  as  the  dryness  of  the  cake. 

For  a  still  softer  frosting  a  larger  proportion  of  egg  white 
is  used.  This  may  be  varied  with  different  flavors  and 
colors. 

35 


399 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

French  Dressing  for  Salads. 

One-fourth  teaspoon  salt,  speck  pepper,  one  tablespoon 
vinegar,  two  or  three  tablespoons  oil. 

Blend  thoroughly  and  pour  over  the  salad. 

Mayonnaise  Dressing. 

One  egg  yolk,  one-half  to  one  cup  oil,  one  tablespoon 
vinegar,  one  tablespoon  lemon  juice,  one-half  teaspoon  salt, 
one-half  teaspoon  mustard,  few  grains  cayenne. 

Mix  vinegar,  lemon  juice  and  seasoning. 

Beat  egg  yolk,  add  oil  drop  by  drop  at  first,  beating  con- 
tinually. When  thick  acid  a  little  of  the  seasoning  mixture, 
then  more  oil  and  alternate  until  all  is  used. 

Utensils  and  materials  should  be  kept  as  cool  as  possible. 

Chocolate. 

Melt  one  ounce  chocolate  in  saucepan  over  hot  water, 
add  a  few  grains  salt,  one  tablespoon  sugar,  one-half  pint 
boiling  water ;  stir  till  smooth ;  boil  one  minute.  Blend  with 
one  pint  hot  milk  and  cook  in  double  boiler. 

Beat  with  Dover  egg  beater  to  prevent  skin  forming  on 
top.  Just  before  serving,  an  egg  yolk  may  be  added  to  the 
chocolate.  Serve  with  whipped  cream. 

Chocolate  and  cocoa  both  contain  starch  which  requires 
cooking. 


36 


400 


HOUSEHOLD    MANAGEMENT 


IN  THE  study  of  Economics  there  are  two  great 
divisions — production  and  consumption.  Until 
within  a  few  years,  by  far  the  lion's  share  of  time  and 
study  has  been  given  to  the  first  of  these  divisions.  It 
has  been  deemed  sufficient  for  the  securing  of  happi- 
ness and  prosperity  to  a  people  to  point  out  how  the 
greatest  degree  of  efficiency  in  producing  wealth  might 
be  obtained.  The  manner  in  which  that  wealth  was 
expended  was  considered  less  important.  Recently  a 
decided  change  has  taken  place.  A  conviction  has 
been  growing,  especially  among  students  or  economics, 
of  the  equal  importance  of  the  other  division,  which 
covers  the  use  made  of  the  money  after  it  has  been 
acquired.  This  emphasizes  the  important  place  of  the 
home  in  Economics  as  will  be  realized  by  those  who 
consider  how  largely  the  home  is  the  center  of  the 
consumption  of  wealth. 

In  former  times  the  home  was  practically  the  entire 
economic  world.  Most  of  what  was  produced  to  meet 
the  needs  of  the  people  originated  there,  while  all  of 
it  found  ready  consumption  within  the  family  circle 
or  by  limited  exchange.  To-day  the  shop  and  factory 
have  taken  most  of  the  productions  and  developed  them 


Place  of 
Home  in 
Consumption 
of  Wealth 


401 


2  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

one  by  one,  into  large  industries  outside  the  home, 
such  as  the  manufacture  of  dress  goods  and  cloth  of 
all  kinds,  carpets,  bedding,  candles  and  soap;  trades, 
such  as  tailoring,  shoe-making  and  millinery,  all  hav- 
ing their  origin  in  the  home.  The  preparation  of  food 
is  almost  the  only  work  left  to  the  home  which  may 
be  called  creative,  unless  we  include  the  supreme  work 
of  developing  men  and  women. 

Yet  with  production  passed  practically  out  of  the 
control  of  the  home,  we  find  the  other  branch  of 
Economics,  consumption,  still  chiefly  confined  there. 
Most  of  the  wealth  acquired  outside  is  expended  on 
either  the  home  or  the  interests  closely  connected  with 
it.  Women  thus  become  the  main  directors  of  these 
expenditures.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  most  of 
them  stand  in  great  need  of  a  better  understanding 
of  the  importance  of  the  work  that  is  theirs,  and  of 
the  principles  which  underlie  all  correct  economy. 
Economy  Two  aims  are  of  equal  importance,  in  the  practice 
of  economy;  (i)  to  increase  the  income,  and  (2)  to 
diminish  the  expenditures.  The  last  contains  possi- 
bilities of  comfort  of  quite  as  high  order  as  the  first. 
There  are,  according  to  Devine,  "three  methods  by 
which  general  prosperity  may  be  increased ;  a  better 
choice,  a  better  production,  a  better  consumption.  In 
comparing  the  relative  importance  of  the  three 
methods  it  will  be  found  that  there  are  greater  imme- 
diate possibilities  in  the  third  (a  better  consumption) 
than  in  either  of  the  others,  and  that  of  the  two  that 


402 


ECONOMICS  3 

remain,  the  first  (a  better  choice)  is  more  important 
than  the  second."* 

In  the  light  of  all  these  facts  it  is  a  surprising  thing 
that  anyone  can  look  lightly  upon  the  share  that  is 
given  to  woman  in  the  economic  struggle.  There 
are  those  who  urge  that  the  reason  why  women  are 
finding  the  care  of  their  homes  less  attractive  than 
formerly  is  the  fact  that  all  which  adds  zest  and  is 
worth  while  is  taken  from  them.  Rather  is  it  true  that 
some  things  which  demanded  time  and  strength  have 
yielded  to  more  vital  things,  and  there  is  now  op- 
portunity to  perfect  that  which  is  left,  with  a  better 
appreciation  of  its  importance. 

Devine  further  affirms  that  "it  is  the  present  duty 
of  the  economist  to  magnify  the  office  of  the  wealth 
expender,  to  accompany  her  to  the  very  threshold  of 
the  home,  that  he  may  point  out,  with  untiring  vig- 
ilance, its  woeful  defects,  its  emptiness,  caused  not 
so  much  by  lack  of  income,  as  by  lack  of  knowledge 
of  how  to  spend  wisely.  There  is  no  higher  economic 
function  than  that  of  determining  how  wealth  shall 
be  used.  Even  if  man  remains  the  chief  producer,  and 
woman  remains  the  chief  factor  in  determining  how 
wealth  shall  be  used,  the  economic  position  of  woman 
will  not  be  considered  by  those  who  judge  with  dis- 
crimination, inferior  to  that  of  man.  Both  may  in  their 
respective  .positions  contribute  directly  and  powerfully 
to  the  advancement  of  general  prosperity." 

*  Devine:    Economic  Function  of  Woman. 


Office 
of  the 
Wealth 
Expender 


403 


Use  of 
Money 


Business 

Side  of 

Home-Making' 


4  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

As  women  awaken  to  a  realization  of  this  truth, 
and  bend  their  energy  to  acquire  the  knowledge  and 
skill  necessary  to  do  their  part  more  successfully,  we 
shall  begin  to  attain  the  degree  of  comfort  and  pros- 
perity possible  for  us  to  enjoy.  There  is  far  more 
money  earned  in  the  majority  of  families  than  is  wisely 
spent.  The  error  is  frequently  careless  expenditure, 
not  sloth  in  acquiring,  a  misuse  rather  than  lack  of 
income.  The  old  adage,  "A  penny  saved  is  a  penn> 
earned,"  should  be  daily  before  the  housewife.  She 
should  weigh  in  a  less  vague  and  general  way  the 
saying  that  "one  cannot  have  his  money  and  spend  it 
too."  Money  has  but  a  limited  purchasing  power: 
if  it  goes  to  gratify  one  desire,  another  must  be  denied. 
Few,  very  few,  are  able  to  satisfy  all  material  desires. 
The  mistake  is  made  in  giving  too  little  thought  to  the 
various  avenues  of  expenditure,  the  desire  uppermost 
at  the  time  being  the  one  gratified,  regardless  of  the 
relative  importance  of  others.  Combined  with  this 
are  usually  the  failure  to  exercise  foresight  and  the 
lack  of  sufficient  knowledge  of  values  to  insure  full 
money  value  for  each  outlay.  'The  woman  who  longs 
to  get  where  she  'won't  have  to  count  every  penny' 
will  never  have  her  longing  satisfied  until  she  makes 
every  penny  count."* 

As  the  economic  importance  of  the  home  is  more 
fully  realized,  the  business  side  of  home-making  is 
emphasized.  The  home  has  a  close  and  intimate  rela- 

*  Miss  Richardson :     The  Woman  Who  Spends. 


404 


HOUSEKEEPING  A  PROFESSION  5 

tion  to  the  business  world  in  general.  The  house- 
wife in  her  customary  purchases  comes  in  touch  with 
retail  trade  of  almost  every  variety  and  adds  her  con- 
tribution. If  she  makes  use  of  the  bank  as  the  best 
medium  of  exchange,  she  shares  in  the  interests  of  one 
of  the  large  business  enterprises.  With  a  surplus  to 
invest,  she  has  to  do  with  one  or  another  branch  of 
the  business  world  in  selecting  the  form  of  invest- 
ment, and  in  looking  after  the  income  from  it.  To 
conduct  any  and  all  of  these  interests  in  the  most  ef- 
ficient and  successful  manner  requires  as  thorough 
training  as  for  any  other  line  of  business.  Only  busi- 
ness-like methods  can  succeed.  The  reason  why  so 
many  women  fail  at  just  this  point  is  from  a  lack,  in 
their  early  life  and  education,  of  the  training  which 
develops  business  ability. 

HOUSEKEEPING  A  PROFESSION 

Housekeeping  ranks  among  the  professions  as  truly 
as  any  other  occupation.  It  is  more  than  a  trade,  since 
one  who  works  at  a  trade  performs  each  day  the  task 
assigned,  the  work  being  planned  and  directed  by 
another.  Thus  little  of  the  worker's  energy  is  ex- 
pended in  deciding  his  activities.  It  is  the  director 
who  must  possess  and  exercise  the  power  to  guide; 
•his  work  being  to  initiate,  plan  and  direct.  This  re- 
quires larger  capacity  and  ability  than  is  required  of 
the  one  who  merely  practices  a  trade. 

It  is  the  work  of  the  housewife  to  initiate,  plan 
and  direct  the  business  of  the  house.  The  woman 
who  considers  this  work  as  the  opportunity  to  assist 


405 


Need   of 
Education 


Estimation 
of  Values 


Education 

of  the 

Home-Maker 


6  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

in  sharing  the  responsibilities  of  the  wage-earner,  and 
in  developing  the  powers  of  those  making  up  the  fam- 
ily, has  grasped  the  truth  concerning  the  possibilities  of 
her  work. 

There  should  be  no  more  question  as  to  the  need  of 
education  and  training  for  the  woman  who  selects  the 
food,  clothing  and  works  of  art  which  minister  to  the 
highest  welfare  of  a  family  than  there  is  for  the  need 
cf  study  on  the  part  of  the  farmer,  the  manufacturer, 
or  the  artist  who  produces  them. 

Everywhere  training  is  showing  its  benefits  in  the 
greater  efficiency  and  skill  of  those  who  take  ad- 
vantage of  it.  Women  will  never  be  able  to  spend 
money  so  as  to  bring  adequate  results,,  until  they 
have  in  some  way  acquired  a  broad  training  in  the 
estimation  of  values.  The  word  of  the  salesman  is 
a  poor  guide,  yet  one  who  has  had  no  training  to  aid 
her  is  unable  to  select  for  herself  any  more  satis- 
factorily. Houses  which  are  turned  over  to  "experts" 
are  usually  striking  witnesses  of  abundant  expendi- 
ture, but  pitiably  fail  to  convey  to  eye  or  heart  the 
refreshing  individuality  or  the  satisfaction  to  be  real- 
ized in  the  cultivated  woman's  home. 

The  fullest,  most  completely  rounded  education  is 
none  too  good  for  one  who  is  called  upon  to  use  and 
impart  so  varied  information  as  is  the  housewife.  The 
study  of  science  is  especially  practical  for  one  who 
aspires  to  master  all  the  things  that  come  within  the 
range  of  her  work.  A  knowledge  of  chemistry  is 


406 


HOUSEKEEPING  A  PROFESSION  7 

necessary  to  an  understanding  of  food  composition,  of 
cooking,  cleaning,  etc.  The  laws  of  physics  are  as 
closely  related.  For  the  mother,  modern  psychology 
is  an  indispensable  study,  if  she  is  to  understand  her 
child,  and  wisely  guide  its  development.  If  this 
knowledge  may  not  be  secured  in  school,  a  great  deal 
may  be  done  to  supplement  such  training.  Study  in 
this  course  should  do  much  along  this  line. 

In  addition  to  the  knowledge  gained  through  study, 
there  should  be  a  liberal  amount  of  practice  in  the 
various  duties  before  one  assumes  the  care  of  a  house. 
Unfortunate  the  home  where  the  practical  experience 
all  comes  after  marriage.  It  comes  at  the  hardest 
of  periods  and  is  unjust  to  any  man.  In  no  busi- 
ness can  failure  be  graver  or  the  results  more  serious. 
The  fact  that  some  very  efficient  housekeepers  have 
evolved  from  unpromising  beginnings  is  no  argument. 
Such  are,  without  exception,  most  eager  for  their 
daughters  to  receive  training,  since  they  know  by  dear 
experience  its  value. 

Much  of  the  present  aversion  to  household  duties 
would  vanish  before  adequate  preparation  to  perform 
them.  The  American  Kitchen  Magazine  published,  in 
January,  1901,  some  suggestions  of  leading  men  on 
the  general  subject  of  Housekeeping  on  a  Business- 
like Basis.  Some  of  their  remarks  are  significant. 
One  says :  "Whenever  one's  knowledge  of  a  subject  has 
passed  the  stage  of  drudgery  and  becomes  a  science, 
its  performance  immediately  becomes  a  pleasure.  The 
ability  to  do  a  thing  in  the  highest  known  perfection, 


4O7 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


A  Right 
Spirit 


Training 
and 

Devotion 
Essential 


Business 
Principles 


or  a  little  better  than  anyone  else,  is  always  a  source 
of  delight,  and  it  matters  little  what  that  something 
is.  This  spirit  imparts  its  influence  to  everyone  in 
any  way  associated  with  the  work.  The  men  or 
women  who  know  their  business  seldom  have  diffi- 
culty in  keeping  those  under  them  happily  employed. 
....  Wherever  the  circumstances  of  our  life  land 
us,  we  should  make  our  stand,  do  our  part  of  the 

world's  work,  and  do  it  well The  woman  who 

would  have  a  home  of  her  own  and  a  happy  one, 
should  know,  not  only  how  to  manage  the  chamber- 
maid, but  the  cook  as  well.  The  moment  that  either 
discovers  that  there  is  method  on  the  part  of  their 
mistress  and  knowledge  superior  to  their  own,  they 

will  comply  with  her  requests There  will  be  no 

trouble  with  the  kitchen  end  of  the  house  when  women 
take  the  same  pains  to  know  their  business  as  men  do. 

"The  first  essential  is  the  proper  training.  The  sec- 
ond essential  is  such  a  desire  for  success  that  she  is 
willing  to  perform  her  part  with  industry  and  devo- 
tion. 

"It  is  not  as  necessary  to  show  that  housekeeping 
has  in  it  elements  of  business  as  to  make  house- 
keepers themselves  recognize  its  business  character 
and  apply  to  it  ordinary  business  principles.  A  quick 
attention  to  details,  a  fine  sense  of  values,  good  judg- 
ment in  buying  and  selling,  and  a  ready  adaptation  of 
means  to  end  with  the  le^st  possible  loss,  are  points 
of  a  good  business  man, — the  housekeeper  certainly 
has  need  of  them." 


HOME  EXPENDITURES 

Whatever  the  condition  of  a  family,  whether  large 
or  small,  in  city  or  country,  in  private  house  or  apart- 
ment, the  successful  expenditure  of  money  to  supply 
the  family  with  needed  comforts  depends  vastly  more 
upon  brains  than  upon  dollars,  upon  the  standard  of 
life  than  upon  circumstances.  To  know  where  to 
economize  and  where  to  lavish,  to  be  on  the  alert  for 
the  small  wastes,  so  often  disregarded, — only  train- 
ing and  experience  can  realize  the  ideal  in  these  things. 

The  extreme  economies  practiced  in  former  years 
are  beyond  doubt  questionable  in  these  days  of  aston- 
ishing increase  in  the  production  of  wealth.  Time  has 
become  too  valuable  to  be  profitably  spent  in  weaving 
rag  carpets  merely  to  save  the  rags.  If  done,  there 
must  be  some  aesthetic  value  found  to  justify  it.  The 
same  holds  true  of  many  occupations  of  the  earlier 
housekeeper.  The  taking  of  these  occupations  from 
the  home  and  the  development  of  them  into  independ- 
ent industries  has  liberated  much  time  and  strength, 
which  it  is  the  duty  of  the  housewife  not  to  waste. 
The  changes  have  been  phenomenally  rapid,  and  ad- 
justment could  hardly  be  expected  to  keep  pace,  but 
there  is  much  to  indicate  an  appreciation  of  the  sit- 
uation on  the  part  of  manv  women  and  a  sincere 
desire  and  endeavor  to  co-operate  in  meeting  the 
changes  intelligently. 

.There  is  no  less  need  of  the  practice  of  economy  in 
the  expenditures  of  the  present  time  than  formerly, 


409 


io  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

even  if  the  methods  necessarily  differ.  For  instance, 
while  we  may  afford  ourselves  finer  materials  and 
more  variety  in  clothing  there  is  a  correspondingly 
greater  demand  for  wise  and  intelligent  choice  of  ma- 
terials for  bodily  needs  and  the  avoidance  of  such  as 
purport  to  be  what  they  are  not.  Otherwise  extrav- 
agance in  the  loss  of  time  through  illness,  or  even  of 
life  itself,  results.  Economy  in  food  no  longer  re- 
.  quires  the  family  to  forego  certain  food-stuffs  which 
were  formerly  luxuries.  The  requisite  is  rather  the 
exercise  of  foresight  in  buying  the  product  when  in 
season,  or  legitimately  within  the  reach  of  the  limited 
purse. 

standards  One  niust  have  a  standard,  conciously  defined  and 
recognized,  in  order  to  choose  successfully.  A  stand- 
ard of  life  consists  of  those  principles  which  guide 
one's  motives  and  direct  one's  activities.  Conscious 
standards  are  not  often  enough  realized  in  things 
ethical.  We  have  standards  of  weights  and  measures 
by  which  all  weights  and  measures  are  tested.  We 
have  standards  by  which  we  discriminate  in  music,  art, 
and  many  other  things.  But  who  can  define  his 
Standard  of  Life  readily  ?  We  may  reveal  it  to  others, 
in  fact  we  are  constantly  doing  so  as  we  decide  this 
or  that.  The  great  difference  between  a  successful 
person  who  accomplishes  much,  and  one  who  never 
seems  to  amount  to  anything  in  particular,  is  the  dif- 
ference in  which  their  standards  of  life  have  been 
made  clear  and  conscious,  thus  becoming  a  vital,  guid- 
ing factor  in  action. 


410 


HO  USEHOLD  EXPENDITURES  1 1 

We  recognize  innumerable  varieties  of  standards, 
as  the  result  of  varying  education  and  training,  advan- 
tages and  opportunity,  or  the  lack  of  them.  False 
standards  arise  from  failure  to  discriminate  between 
needs  and  wants.  There  are  conflicting  opinions  as 
to  what  vital  needs  are,  although  it  would  seem  self- 
evident  that  they  consist  materially,  in  those  things 
which  man  must  have  to  live  under  the  best  conditions, 
such  as  pure  food,  healthful  clothing,  sanitary  houses, 
sufficient  air  and  light  together  with  those  things 
which  will  minister  to  his  highest  intellectual  and 
spiritual  development.  Through  failure  to  distinguish 
intelligently  the  majority  of  people  spend  two-thirds 
or  more  of  their  income  for  what  fails  to  bring  them 
the  best  results  in  health  and  happiness. 

We  are  too  inclined  to  scorn  the  women  of  former 
days  because  of  their  more  limited  horizons.  We 
may  profitably  study  their  understanding  of  their  con- 
ditions and  needs  and  the  wise  adaptation  to  them, 
which  gave  them  an  important  place  in  the  work  and 
progress  of  their  time.  The  women  who  succeed  to- 
day in  the  use  of  larger  opportunities  are  those  'who, 
like  them,  dare  to  live  in  intelligent  independence, 
true  each  to  her  individual  standard  of  life.  Such 
women  do  not  indiscriminately  copy  the  manners  of 
living  or  dress  of  others  merely  to  be  like  them  or  in 
fashion.  They  are  not  ashamed  to  acknowledge  a 
liking  for  home-making  and  housekeeping.  They 
spend  with  care  and  judgment  A  suggestive,  com- 


Needs 

and 

Wants 


411 


12 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


Differing 
Standards 


parison  between  the  women  of  the  past  and  those 
of  the  present  is  that  of  Miss  Richardson  in  The  Wom- 
an Who  Spends:  "In  olden  times  women  thought 
and  thought  and  thought  before  they  spent,  often  mak- 
ing the  spending  a  burden.  Now  women  often  spend, 
and  then  think  and  think  and  think.  Nor  does  the 
lack  of  thought  beforehand  ease  the  burden  of  the 
results  of  her  spending." 

As  urged  elsewhere  it  is  not  enough  that  we  be  well- 
intentioned  since  even  then  we  may  be  painfully  or 
harmfully  extravagant  through  ignorance.  We  must 
know  not  only  that  pure  food,  hygienic  clothing  and 
durable  furnishings  are  well,  but  we  must  know  what 
constitutes  each  and  how  to  secure  them.  Other- 
wise we  must  be  classed  among  the  extravagant. 

No  true  economy  can  be  practiced  in  the  home"  until 
a  standard  is  adopted  by  all  the  members  of  the  family, 
in  which  there  is  agreement  of  effort  to  promote  the 
family  well-being;  at  the  same  time  that  all  unite  to 
accept  with  intelligent  grace  the  common  deprivations 
necessary  to  lessen  family  waste  either  of  money, 
labor,  time,  health,  strength,  or  possessions. 

Standards  in  regard  to  living  must  necessarily  dif- 
fer greatly  with  different  individuals  and  families. 
The  education,  tastes,  and  occupations  of  people  dif- 
fer so  widely  that  it  would  be  entirely  impossible  to 
establish  a  universal  standard.  That  one  may  have 
greater  demands  than  another  is  purely  accidental,  yet 
must  be  reckoned  with.  Even  our  individual  stand- 


412 


HOUSEHOLD  EXPENDITURES  13 

ards  are  not  stationary  but  are  ever  giving  way  to 
new  and  higher  ones  if  we  are  as  progressive  as  we 
should  be.  All  this  makes  it  difficult  to  proportion  ex- 
penditures so  that  the  highest  good  shall  always  be 
secured. 

The  most  important  reason  for  attempting  to  classify 
our  wants  and  our  provision  for  their  gratification,  is 
that  thereby  we  may  provide  ourselves  with  a  defi- 
nitely recognized  standard  which  can  be  reckoned 
with,  studied,  and,  from  time  to  time  improved.  Man 
shares  with  the  brutes  a  low  or  primitive  range  of 
desires  consisting  of  the  satisfying  of  the  physical  de- 
mands for  food,  rest,  shelter  and  clothing.  Gradually 
he  comes  to  desire  other  things,  his  standard  is  raised, 
and  by  the  repression  of  his  desires  in  the  lower  range 
he  is  able  to  secure  satisfaction  in  the  higher.  The 
day  laborer  necessarily  has  standards  as  to  food  which 
differ  from  those  of  the  scholar.  The  scholar  must 
expend  more  for  dress,  perhaps,  regardless  of  the  dif- 
ference of  income  but  this  difference  is  not  vital,  since 
all  genuine  and  legitimate  differences  seem  to  pro- 
mote  progress  in  the  people.  The  danger  lies  rather 
in  "accidental  accompaniments"  which  are  not  neces- 
sities. 

In  deciding  upon  a  standard  of  life,  one  acts  upon 
his  best  judgment  at  the  time,  independent  of  others, 
except  as  he  recognizes  that  he  may  improve  his  stand- 
ard by  comparison  with  theirs.  "Style  of  living/'  on 
the  contrary,  is  thrust  upon  one  from  without  Ac- 


style  of 
Living 


413 


Accurate 

Record 

Important 


I4  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

cepting  it,  he  becomes  its  slave,  entirely  depend- 
ent upon  what  "they"  will  say  as  to  this  or  that  ex- 
penditure, never  upon  the  consideration  of  the  real 
good  to  be  derived. 

Only  by  keeping  an  accurate  record  of  expenditures 
can  one  follow  the  outgo  so  as  to  find  how  the  stand- 
ards of  the  family  measure  up  to  the  ideal.  Without 
indisputable  facts  in  black  and  white  one  is  easily  de- 
ceived. It  is  natural  to  feel  that  economy  is  being 
practiced  when  many  a  coveted  article  is  resisted.  The 
year's  bill  with  its  record  of  many  other  indulgences 
is  sometimes  a  rude  but  wholesome  awakening. 
Twenty-five  cents  to-day  and  another  to-morrow  for 
some  luxury  in  food  seems  too  slight  to  take  account 
of,  but  multiplied  by  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  the 
increase  in  the  food-expense  becomes  a  considerable 
sum.  It  is  well  to  look  frequently  to  aggregated  ex- 
penses like  these. 

In  arriving  at  a  basis  for  the  classification  of  ex- 
penditures it  is  helpful  to  compare  those  of  a  large 
number  of  families,  studying  the  avenues  of  expense 
to  determine  in  what  way  the  maximum  of  health ; 
physical,  mental,  and  moral  is  reached.  Several  such 
comparative  studies  have  been  made  and  a  few  typical 
budgets  have  been  selected  to  illustrate  the  method 
pursued  in  attacking  the  problem. 

In  making  a  classification  of  one's  own,  it  will  be 
most  useful  to  decide  upon  a  tentative  division  of  the 
year's  income  under  the  heads  which  seem  most  valu- 


414 


HOUSEHOLD  EXPENDITURES  15 

able  to  keep  as  separate  divisions.  These  proportions 
may  be  studied  in  per  cents,  or  the  salary  for  each 
week  or  month  or  quarter  may  be  divided  and  the 
amount  for  each  division  reserved  to  defray  the  ex- 
penses which  arise  in  connection  with  that  division 
during  the  period.  As  time  goes  on  one  is  able  to 
see  how  accurately  the  provisional  division  was  made 
to  fit  the  needs. 

Such  a  theoretical  division  should  always  be  de- 
cided upon  as  a  check  to  undue  expenditure,  as  one 
will  try  to  bring  the  actual  expense  within  the  limits 
that  seemed  wise  to  set  when  all  things  were  taken 
into  account  at  the  time  of  deciding  upon  the  propor- 
tions. 

A  regular  income  is  the  fortunate  arrangement  in 
many  families.  This  tends  to  develop  thrift  and  to 
remove  the  tendency  to  run  up  bills  leading  to  debts. 
The  tendency  for  such  is  to  live  up  to  the  limit  of  the 
income  and  the  division  for  saving  and  higher  life  in 
general  is  usually  small.  It  is  found  that  salaried 
people  seldom  get  deeply  in  debt,  but  also  seldom 
accumulate  very  much. 

For  those  without  regular  and  known  income 
the  problem  of  apportioning  expenditures  is  very  dif- 
ficult. The  only  safe  course  is  to  determine  upon  a 
definite  minimum  income.  The  surplus  will  then  be 
an  unexpected  pleasure. 

The  actual  per  cent  of  the  income  allowed  for  each 
division  will  depend  chiefly  upon  two  things;  namely, 


415 


iC 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


Real  Values 


Budgets 


the  size  of  the  income,  and  the  ideals  or  standards  of 
the  family.  The  necessities  of  life  must  be  provided 
and  if  the  income  is  small,  barely  enough  to  cover  these 
needs,  there  is  little  choice  left  but  to  spend  all  for 
them.  Yet  as  a  matter  of  fact,  choice  is  possible  for 
most  families.  While  a  large  wage-earning  class  are 
receiving  smaller  incomes  than  one  would  wish,  at 
the  same  time  we  find  choice  playing  an  important 
role  in  determining  the  purchases  of  the  day  laborer, 
as  well  as  of  those  who  are  not  limited  for  money.  In 
fact,  it  is  with  those  who  can  least  afford  to  be  gov- 
erned by  caprices  that  the  most  pitiful  lawlessness  in 
these  things  prevails  because  of  ignorance. 

Enlightenment  through  education  in  real  values  is 
needed  by  all  alike,  that  correct  divisions  may  be  made 
and  lived  up  to,  and  that  the  division  for  higher  life, 
most  often  cut  to  a  discreditably  low  per  cent,  may  be 
recognized  and  properly  provided  for. 

The  following  table  from  The  Cost  of  Living  by 
Mrs.  Ellen  H.  Richards  gives  some  actual  and  typical 
family  budgets : 


HOUSEHOLD  EXPENDITURES 
Typical  Budgets 


Perc 

entag 

3  for 

Oc«£ 

3|~2 

£*s 

Family  Income  Per  Year. 

<s3j| 

too 

hn 

Aff£ 

<£$$ 

*|  *  fcC 

I 

£>"£ 

1 

ill 

| 

,d  eS  2 

.jftno 

£ 

8 

0 

Q 

n 

$3,098,  three  adults,  two  chil- 
dren                         

27.5 

21.1 

16.8 

10. 

2i.6 

2,500  (Mass.),  three   adults, 

no  children  

25. 

25. 

13. 

12. 

25. 

2,500  (Mass.),  two  adults,  one 

child,  much  company. 

32. 

18. 

18. 

10. 

22. 

1  ,980  (St.  Louis)  ,  four  adults, 

two  children  

36.3 

24.2 

20.9 

18. 

JO 

950  (Mass.),     two     adults. 

three  children  

20. 

19. 

16. 

15. 

30. 

600  (Boston),    two    adults 
(women)  ,  two  children. 

23. 

26. 

4. 

5. 

C           26.1 
1        Travel, 
',  Sickness,  etc. 

535  (N.    Y.),    two    adults, 

I           15.9 

three  children.  

55.2 

22.4 

5.3 

9.4 

7.7 

312  '  '  mean  '  '   Englishman, 

two  adults,  three  chil- 

dren..   

E5  2 

15.5 

8  9 

13.1 

7  3 

300,  Dr.  Engell's  estimates 

62. 

12. 

5! 

16. 

5 

From  Cost  of  Living,   Mrs. 

E.  H.  Richards. 

From  these  budgets  it  will  be  seen  that  little  choice 
is  given  the  families  of  most  limited  means.  The 
necessities  cost  about  the  same  for  all.  It  is  in  the 
range  of  luxuries  that  the  greatest  divergence  is  to 
be  found.  Only  there  can  limitations  be  wisely  set. 
In  those  where  choice  is  possible,  one  observes  a  va- 
riety of  results,  showing  that  one  family  preferred  to 
economize  in  one  way,  another  in  another.  The  com- 
forts to  be  secured  through  increase  of  rent  appeal  to 


417 


iS 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


Ideal 
Budgets 


one,  those  of  additional  service,  another,  and  so 
throughout  the  list. 

Extravagance  is  most  frequently  found  in  the  Food 
and  Operating  expense  divisions.  Individual  extrav- 
agance occurs  most  frequently  in  clothes. 

With  these  actual  and  typical  budgets  in  mind  note 
the  Budgets,  as  suggested  by  Mrs.  Ellen  H.  Richards, 
which  give  the  ideal  theoretical  division  of  incomes 
varying  from  $500  to  $4000.  The  interest  and  profit 
to  the  housewife  in  the  comparison  of  these  widely 
differing  standards  will  be  the  stimulus  to  keep  sys- 
tematic accounts,  that  she  may  be  able  to  determine 
the  percentages  of  her  own  family  expenses.  Such 
an  account  with  its  day  of  reckoning  is  an  excellent 
moral  support  since  one  will  learn  to  think  twice 
over  the  temptation  to  spend  for  personal  gratifica- 
tion, or  for  those  things  which  have  at  best  little 
to  recommend  them  either  for  pleasure  or  profit. 


418 


HOUSEHOLD  EXPENDITURES 
Ideal  Budgets 


Percentage  for 

*! 

£|  «  1 

Family  Income. 

||i 

bb 

-US! 

d 

5^*I3M, 

_j 

^ 

2  S  cs 

2 

«  0  c8  w 

o 

a 

8,S£ 

0 

•^wS  o 

ft 

« 

0 

0 

H 

Two  adults  and  two  or  three  children 

(equal  to  four  adults)  : 

Ideal  Division— 

$2,000  to  $4,000          .... 

25 

20  ± 

15  ± 

15  ± 

25 

2,000  to    1,000  

25 

20  * 

15  ± 

20  ± 

20 

800  to    1,000      .   .. 

30 

20 

10 

15 

25 

500  to      800  

45 

15 

10 

.10 

20 

Under  $500  

60 

15 

5 

10 

10 

From  Cost  of  Living,  Mrs.  E.  H.  Rich- 

ards. 

Four  laws  have  been  formulated  by  Dr.  Engel, 
which  state  the  tendency  in  the  changes  of  per  cents 
noted  in  such  budgets  as  we  have  been  considering: 

DR.    ENGEL'S    LAWS 

1.  The  proportion  between  expenditure  and  nutri- 
ment grows  in  geometric  progression  in  adverse  ratio 
to  well-being;  in  other  words,  the  higher  the  income, 
the  smaller  is  the  per  cent  of  cost  of  subsistence. 

2.  Clothing  assumes   and  keeps  a   distinctly  con- 
stant proportion  in  the  whole. 

3.  Lodging,   warming  and   lighting  have    an    in- 
variable proportion,  whatever  the  income. 

4.  The  more  the  income  increases  the  greater  is 
the  proportion  of  the   different  expenses   which   ex- 
press the  degree  of  well-being. 


419 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

DIVISION  OF  INCOME  CHAET 
Typical  Family  of  Two  Adults  and  Three   Children 


Running  Expenses  include  Wages,  Fuel,  Light,  Ice,  Etc.     With  $1  000 
Income  the  Children  Would  be  Educated  in  the  Public  Schools. ' 

The  above  chart  was  adapted  from  a  large  colored 
chart  prepared  under  the  direction  of  Mrs.  E.  H. 
Richards  for  the  Mary  Lowell  Stone  Exhibit  on  Home 
Economics. 


420 


RENT 


21 


The  classes  of  expenditure  discussed  in  the  follow- 
ing pages  are  those  which,  on  the  whole,  best  repre- 
sent the  different  divisions  into  which  money  expendi- 
ture may  fall.  These  are  Rent,  or  its  equivalent  paid 
for  shelter,  Operating  Expenses,  such  as  fuel,  light, 
wages  and  repairs,  Food,  Clothes  and  Higher  Life. 
The  latter  includes  all  that  ministers  to  mental  and 
moral  well-being,  as  education,  travel,  amusements, 
charities,  savings  and  insurance.  These  will  be  con- 
sidered in  order. 

RENT 

The  question  of  buying  or  renting  a  house  which 
shall  offer  shelter  and  make  a  home  for  the  family 
is  often  a  difficult  one  in  these  days.  Formerly  private 
possession  was  much  more  universal  than  at  the  pres- 
ent time.  It  is  more  or  less  impossible  within  a  wide 
radius  of  the  center  of  our  largest  cities  to-day  to 
buy  a  single  house  at  any  price.  For  this  reason  peo- 
ple are  more  and  more  forced  to  rent,  and  must  share 
a  house  with  other  families,  usually,  either  in  double 
houses,  apartments  or  flats.  Many  of  the  objections 
which  are  to  be  urged  against  boarding  are  equally 
forceful  for  this  manner  of  living.  The  too  close 
proximity  of  others  is  a  misfortune,  yet  it  is  preferable 
to  boarding,  since  some  privacy  and  individuality  may 
still  be  preserved.  Some,  feeling  the  natural  instinct 
of  ownership  too  strongly  to  be  content  to  give  it  up 
so  completely,  will  prefer  to  go  into  the  suburbs  and 


Buying 

or 

Renting 


421 


22 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


rely  upon  electric  cars  or  other  means  of  transporta- 
tion, for  going  to  and  returning  from  business. 

The  difficulties  which  present  themselves  when  one 
considers  buying,  may  be  summed  up  under  the  fol- 
lowing heads: 

1.  Scarcity  of  available  houses  in  places  of  any 
size. 

2.  Greatly  increased  cost,  due  to  increasing  valua- 
tion of  property. 

3.  Tendency     of     fluctuating     business,     causing 
changes  in  plans  or  place  of  residence,  necessitating 
the  disposal  of  a  house  at  a  sacrifice. 

4.  Unforeseen  changes  in  business  centers  in  our 
rapidly    growing  towns,  and  cities,  greatly  affecting 
the  desirability  of  the  location  for  a  home. 

5.  Constant  expenditures  required  to  keep  a  house 
in  repair,  often  in  excess  of  rent. 

6.  Decreasing  tendency  on  the  part  of  young  peo- 
ple to  have  a  saving  fund  which  can  be  used  or  which 
they  are  willing  to  use  for  purchasing  a  home. 

The  advantages  of  owning  a  home  when  it  is  at  all 
possible  or  feasible,  far  outweigh  these  disadvantages. 
Renting  tends  to  develop  demoralizing  habits  of  care- 
lessness and  indifference.  The  word  "home"  should 
have  a  meaning  for  us  vastly  deeper  and  richer  than 
can  be  bounded  by  four  walls,  it  is  true,  or  than  can 
be  centered  in  material  or  outward  covering,  yet  a!7 
such  aids  prove  vital  in  developing  and  strengthening 
the  highest  regard  for  the  name  with  children.  The 


422 


RENT  23 

man  or  woman  is  to  be  profoundly  pitied  to  whose 
mind  the  name  does  not  recall  a  definite  and  loved  spot 
as  the  home  of  childhood. 

Nothing  contributes  more  surely  and  steadily  to  the 
development  of  a  worthy  citizen  and  through  him  of  a 
worthy  community  than  proprietorship  in  his  home. 
It  removes  the  temptation  to  move  from  place  to  place 
— always  a  great  hindrance  to  the  development  of  an 
ideal  home.  The  family  that  rents  tends  to  disregard 
property  rights  and  to  enter  with  less  pride  or  con- 
cern into  the  neighborhood  life.  As  soon  as  a  home 
however  humble,  is  acquired,  a  pride  is  taken  in 
it  and  its  surroundings  and  the  sense  of  personal  re- 
sponsibility for  the  tone  of  the  community  is  much 
keener. 

In  providing  for  shelter  either  by  buying  or  renting, 
three  factors  should  play  a  part,  (i)  sanitary  require- 
ments, (2)  those  things  which,  like  location  and  archi- 
tectural appearance,  answer  the  social  requirements, 
(3)  and  standards  of  living.  Sanitary  requhements 
may  well  be  placed  first.  Money  is  well  and  econ- 
omically expended  which  secures  the  best  possible 
sanitary  conditions.  Failure  at  this  point  has  cost 
many  families  far  more  than  the  two  or  three  dollars' 
difference  per  month  in  rents  by  adding  doctor's  bills 
— most  uneconomical  of  all  expenditures — to  the 
lowering  of  vitality  and  decreasing  of  efficiency. 

Distinction  should  be  made  between  essentials  and 
non-essentials,  between  showy  cheats  and  real  worth. 


423 


24  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

Bright  gilding  does  not  make  good  plumbing  nor 
does  an  especially  fine  porch  bespeak  a  carefully  con- 
structed cellar.  Some  of  the  principle  requisites  are: 
Ample  air  space  for  each  individual,  (300  cu.  ft.  for 
each  person  having  been  found  to  be  the  lowest  amount 
permissible  according  to  sanitary  rules)  ;  light,  fresh 
air  and  water  in  abundance.  Drainage  conditions 
should  be  above  suspicion  within  and  without.  A 
house  so  constructed  as  to  require  the  minimum  of 
labor  to  care  for  is  also  a  wise  and  economical  con- 
sideration. The  housewife  will  be  surprised  in  her 
search  for  these  requirements  to  find  what  poor  pro- 
visions exist  in  most  houses.  The  demand  for  the 
best  sanitary  conditions  has  been  so  slight  up  to  the 
present  time,  that  those  who  build  have  not  found 
it  essential  to  give  them  large  attention,  since  selling 
or  renting  so  seldom  depends  upon  these  things. 
Reasons  If  a  house  is  found  which  is  offered  at  a  price  less 
forprice  than  others  which  are  similar  in  the  vicinity,  one 
of  three  reasons  may  be  found  to  account  for  it. 
Either  it  is  an  old  house  out  of  repair,  or  is  in  an 
undesirable  neighborhood,  or  it  is  simply  cheaply  con- 
structed. In  weighing  its  merits  great  care  should 
be  exercised  to  distinguish  as  to  the  cause.  If  it  is 
such  as  to  be  a  menace  to  health,  physical  or  moral, 
one  has  no  right  to  choose  it.  If  it  will  cost  more 
to  put  it  in  good  condition  to  live  in  than  the  difference, 
or  if  operating  expenses,  as  fuel,  will  be  increased 
more  than  enough  to  offset  the  difference,  then  it  is 


424 


RENT  25 

poor  economy  to  select  it;  but  if  the  difference  is 
merely  one  in  incidentals  such  as  more  or  less  expen- 
sive woods  for  finishing,  etc.,  then  it  may  be  wise  to 
sacrifice  a  little  at  this  point  rather  than  in  something 
more  vital. 

In  building,  the  demands  of  modern  life  require, 
not  including  cost  of  land,  an  expenditure  of  about 
$1000  per  person,  or  $4000  for  the  typical  family  of 
five  persons.  It  is  easy  to  vary  this  to  the  two  ex- 
tremes. In  most  localities,  $10,000  should  build  all 
that  any  family  could  use  for  themselves  alone  so  far 
as  essentials  go. 

The  cost  of  building  varies  so  greatly  that  no  very 
definite  estimates  can  be  given.  In  parts  of  the  United 
States  where  building  materials  and  labor  are  high  the 
cost  of  a  house  may  be  nearly  double  that  in  places 
where  prices  are  low.  The  recent  experience  of  others 
or  the  conservative  estimate  of  a  local  architect  or  con- 
tractor is  the  only  safe  guide. 

The  difference  in  expense  too  often  represents  other 
than  legitimate  reasons:  A  large  expenditure  fre- 
quently represents  bad  taste  and  showy  ornamentation 
rather  than  more  abundant  sunlight,  fresh  air  and 
cleanly  surroundings.  A  good  rule  to  bear  in  mind 
is  that  "less  should  be  spent  for  the  mere  house  and 
more  for  what  goes  on  in  it — the  real  life." 

In  deciding  what  may  be  legitimately  spent  for  rent 
one  may  safely  estimate  whatever  is  necessary  to  se- 
cure the  requisites  for  health.  It  ought  to  be  possible 


425 


26 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


to  secure  safe  surroundings  at  a  cost  not  exceeding  20 
per  cent  of  any  income  between  $500  and  $5000  a  year, 
not  including  the  expense  of  heating  and  lighting.  If 
more  than  that  is  necessary,  it  is  an  indication  that 
the  sanitary  standards  in  the  community  are  not  as 
high  as  they  should  be.  As  a  matter  of  fact  low 
standards  which  the  individual  alone  is  powerless  to 
correct  often  force  the  expense  to  25  per  cent  to  secure 
safety. 

The  location  of  a  house  in  its  relation  to  place  of 
business,  school,  etc.,  should  be  considered.  If  at  a  dis- 
tance so  that  carfares  are  necessary  these  should  be 
reckoned  as  a  part  of  the  rent.  In  considering  the  rent 
of  a  heated  apartment  about  $5  per  month  should  be 
credited  for  the  heat,  in  addition  to  janitor  service  and 
hot  water  if  these  are  furnished. 

OPERATING   EXPENSES 

Operating  expenses  consist,  for  the  most  part,  of 
the  necessary  expenditure  to  keep  a  house  warmed, 
lighted,  clean  and  in  repair.  The  skill  with  which 
these  expenses  are  managed  is  the  supreme  test  of 
the  ability  of  the  housewife,  materially  speaking. 
Other  decisions  may  be  turned  off  more  easily  or  at- 
tended to  once  for  all,  and  there  is  some  end  to  them. 
In  these  the  highest  success  can  only  be  realized  by 
the  woman  who  has  a  genius  for  details,  who  will 
allow  nothing  to  escape  her  consideration,  yet  who  has 
the  ability  to  carry  them  with  a  degree  of  ease  and 


4.9  fi 


OPERATING  EXPENSES  27 

mastery  so  that  it  will  not  be  apparent  to  others,  at 
least,  that  she  finds  them  perplexing  or  burdensome. 
The  over-anxious,  wearied  woman  is  as  lacking  in  the  worry 
element  of  success  as  the  careless  and  heedless  one. 
She  may  be  able,  through  her  greater  watchfulness,  to 
save  more  money,  but  family  happiness  is  perhaps 
more  endangered,  through  the  depression  of  spirits  and 
the  friction  which  result,  than  in  the  other  case.  To 
remove  friction  and  reduce  to  a  harmonious  unit  are 
parts  of  what  she  must  accomplish  through  the  direc- 
tion of  the  operating  expenses. 

The  same  standards  should  control  in  deciding  the  Deterir 
avenues  of  expenditure  here  as  in  selecting  a  house  or  Factors 
deciding  any  of  the  other  divisions.  Health,  comfort 
and  happiness  in  the  highest  and  broadest  conception 
of  these  words  should  be  the  only  factors  having 
weight.  Whether  my  neighbor  has  a  maid  should  be 
nothing  to  me  in  my  decision  as  to  the  necessity  of 
having  one.  To  be  met  at  the  door  by  a  suitably  at- 
tired official  ought  not  to  be  as  important  as  it  would 
sometimes  seem  to  be,  in  leading  us  to  decide  whether 
we  have  had  a  pleasant  and  profitable  'call  on  a  friend. 
All  these  things  are  well  in  their  place,  but  they  are 
by  no  means  so  vital  that  one  should  sacrifice  far  more 
important  things  and  magnify  these  out  of  all  propor- 
tion. 

Much  of  the  necessary  operating  expense  is  deter- 
mined when  the  house  is  selected,  and  the  two  should 
always  be  considered  together.  If  the  number  of 


427 


28  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

rooms  is  limited,  the  expense  of  caring  for  them  will 
be  correspondingly  less.  If  the  house  is  conveniently 
arranged  so  that  the  work  may  be  swiftly  performed, 
the  work  of  each  helper  will  "go  further"  than  if  much 
time  is  wasted  through  unnecessary  steps  or  move- 
ments. So,  also,  in  the  expense  of  heating.  One 
should  consider  whether  the  house  is  arranged  com- 
pactly or  not,  what  the  loss  of  heat  through  exposure 
of  rooms  will  be,  etc.,  so  that  the  cost  of  heating  can 
be  correctly  reckoned  with. 

It  has  been  estimated  that,  for  an  ordinary  city 
house,  the  sum  paid  .annually  for  wages  of  servants 
should  be  equal  to  one-half  the  rental  value  of  the 
house.  This  can  only  be  realized,  however,  by  those 
who  are  willing  to  simplify  their  manner  of  living  so 
as  to  reduce  expenses  more  than  the  average  at  the 
present  time,  or  by  those  who  give  assistance  in  the 
duties. 

When  servants  are  kept  the  cost  of  the  other  operat- 
ing expenses  will  be  increased  without  corresponding 
satisfaction.  In  general,  they  should  be  kept  equal  to 
the  amount  paid  as  wages.  An  excellent  standard  to 
keep  in  mind  is  the  maintenance  of  the  "maximum  of 
efficiency  at  minimum  cost."  It  is  true  economy  to 
expend  for  what  will  remove  friction  or  prove  time- 
saving. 

Wage  The  wages  of  a  general  helper  for  housework  vary 
according  to  location,  from  $3.00  per  week  or  less  in 
some  small  towns  in  the  East  and  through  the  middle 


428 


OPERATING  EXPENSES  29 

West  to  $4.00  or  $5.00  in  the  larger  cities.  This  must 
be  doubled  in  allowing  for  board  and  room  and  for 
the  additional  outlay  because  of  more  wasteful  cook- 
ing and  more  careless  handling  of  furnishings.  One 
housekeeper  who  kept  a  careful  record  of  expenses 
both  when  with  and  without  help,  found  the  weekly 
expense  from  one-fourth  to  one-third  more  when  help 
was  employed. 

The  average  cost  of  hiring  by  the  hour  for  work      Hour 
done  in  the  house  is  from  15  to  25  cents  per  hour  in-      Work 
eluding  the  midday  meal,  if  the  helper  remains  over 
that  time.     Laundry  work  for  unstarched,  flat  pieces, 
averages  25  cents  per  dozen. 

When  all  the  main  avenues  of  expense  have  been  Small 
carefully  considered  to  eliminate  excessive  or  'unnec-  waste 
essary  expenditure,  there  remains  for  the  thrifty 
housewife  the  daily  exercise  of  much  watchful  care 
over  the  "littles"  which  otherwise  astonishingly  run 
up  the  expense.  A  three-burner  chandelier  ablaze  in- 
stead of  one  Welsbach  burner  which  would  give  better 
light  at  less  than  a  third  the  cost ;  a  range  fire  opened, 
at  the  loss  of  at  least  a  hod  of  coal,  to  prepare  a 
warm  dish  for  supper  when  the  use  of  a  gas  or  oil 
stove  for  a  short  time  would  accomplish  the  desired 
result  much  more  cheaply;  daily  orders  in  piece-meal 
over  a  limited  telephone  service,  because  the  difference 
is  not  considered  sufficiently  important  to  necessitate 
the  thought  required  to  combine  all  the  orders  for  that 
day,  or  for  several  days,  in  one  message:  these  are 


429 


30  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

all  trifles  in  themselves,  but  five  cents  here  and  ten 
there  make  a  surprisingly  large  difference  in  the  sum 
total.  The  difference  between  skilful,  thoughtful  out- 
lay and  careless  spending,  is  to  be  measured  in  the 
added  comforts  to  be  secured  by  the  one  who  learns 
the  secret  of  successful  management  in  this  group 
of  expenses. 

FOOD 

The  influence  of  food  upon  the  welfare  of  the  house- 
hold must  be  first  considered  in  apportioning  the 
share  of  income  rightly  devoted  to  it.  In  referring 
to  the  budgets  we  find  that  as  the  income  decreases  the 
percentage  devoted  to  food  increases.  Why  is  this,  or 
why  should  it  be  so?  It  is  because  the  life  of  the  in- 
dividual depends  upon  his  nourishment.  His  shelter 
may  be  poor,  his  clothing  inadequate  for  his  needs, 
but  food  he  must  have  and  upon  proper  food  depends 
his  capacity  for  doing  work  and  doing  it  well. 
Proper  The  child  must  be  properly  nourished  that  it  may 
Food  be  a  strong  little  animal,  growing  into  healthy  happy 
youth.  The  adult  must  be  well  nourished  to  be  an  ef- 
ficient member  of  the  community,  whether  as  a  wage- 
earner  or  as  a  household  spender.  The  food  supply 
must  be  right  for  errors  and  wrong  doing  here  show 
their  effects  in  a  weakened  power  to  perform  work 
or  resist  disease.  In 'this  lies  the  justificatoin  of  the 
poor  man  who  possibly  spends  two-thirds  of  his  in- 
come for  food. 


430 


FOOD  31 

.  The  wide  variation,  however,  as  shown  in  the  bud- 
gets, does  not  indicate  proper  nourishment  in  one  case, 
improper  food  in  another.  Over-nutrition  is  often  as 
dangerous  as  under-nutrition  and  the  cost  of  food  does 
not  determine  its  nutritive  value.  It  by  no  means  fol- 
lows that  because  a  family  has  large  butcher's  and 
grocer's  bills  it  is  therefore  better  nourished.  The 
same  causes  affect  the  cost  of  foods  as  influence  the 
price  of  other  commodities.  The  demand  for  and 
scarcity  of  any  article ;  being  in  or  out  of  season ;  cost 
of  transportation;  loss  through  waste  in  foods  that 
deteriorate  quickly;  fancy  price  asked  for  certain  rare 
flavors,  all  these  determine  price  outside  of  any  con- 
sideration of  nutritive  value. 

Bullock  gives  five  ways  in  which  he  estimates  that 
one-fifth  of  the  money  expended  for  food  is  actually 
wasted. 

1.  Needlessly  expensive  material,  providing  little 
nutrition. 

2.  A  great  deal  thrown  away. 

3.  Bad  preparation. 

4.  Failure  to  select  rightly  according  to  season, 
j.     Badly  constructed  ovens. 

In  1900  when  Mrs.  Richard's  book  on  The  Cost  of 
Living  was  published  experiments  in  dietaries  were 
made  and  the  cost  of  the  raw  material  required  for  so 
many  persons  a  day  estimated.  The  conclusions 
reached  at  that  time  were  that  twenty-five  or  thirty 
cents  per  person  a  day  is  ample  to  supply  all  the 


Cost  per 
Person 


431 


High  Cost 
of  Food 


Sources 
»f  Waste 


32  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

physical  demands  of  one  whose  tastes  have  not  been 
perverted  by  wrong  habits  of  eating.  Good,  sub- 
stantial living,  meeting  all  the  needs  of  people  of  sim- 
ple habits,  can  be  secured  at  less  than  that.  When 
the  expense  exceeds  that  sum  it  is  due  to  one  or  more 
of  the  following  reasons : 

1.  Waste. 

2.  Buying  out  of  season. 

3.  Choice  of  food  of  which  there  is  a  limited  sup- 
ply therefore  price  is  high. 

4.  Perishable  food  stuffs. 

5.  Fads  or  fashions  in  dishes. 

6.  High  priced  products  because  of  choice  flavors 
as  "Gilt  Edged  Butter,"  or  food  which  is  "in  season" 
but  a  short  time,  as  venison. 

Since  the  year  in  which  the  experiments  and  in- 
vestigations were  carried  on  certain  staple  food  stuffs 
have  increased  nearly  twenty  per  cent  in  price,  so 
that  the  margin  for  the  same  bill  of  fare  now  should 
be  wider,  or  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  cents  per 
person  a  day. 

The  housewife  should  carefully  consider  these  esti- 
mates and  the  causes  most  fruitful  of  waste  in  the 
household.  Far  too  lavish  provision  is  often  made  in 
ordering.  Study  and  observation  must  be  given  to  the 
necessary  quantity  of  meats,  vegetables,  etc.,  to  be  pro- 
vided and  served.  Large  portions  are  left  to  be  improp- 
erly warmed  over,  wasted  in  the  kitchen,  or  thrown 
away  altogether.  Waste  in  the  household  arises  mainly 


432 


FOOD  33 

from  lack  of  thought,  planning,  or  carefulness  in  de- 
tail, just  as  in  any  other  business.  A  study  of  foods 
and  food  values  is  necessary  in  order  to  know  what 
less  expensive  material  may  be  provided  to  sup- 
ply the  same  need,  but  above  all  else  must  the  house- 
wife who  desires  to  make  a  study  of  these  things, 
and  reduce  the  waste  in  the  household  realize  that  no 
waste  is  greater  than  poor  material,  illy  prepared.  The 
more  knowledge,  the  more  science  used  in  the  selec- 
tion and  preparation  of  food  for  the  table  should  mean 
more,  not  less  appetizing  results. 

It  is  of  'course  easier  to  provide  a  good    table    for      Numbers 
eight  people  on  $2.40  per  day  than  for  four  people  at 
$1.20.     It  must  be  remembered  that  many  people  live 
well  on  less ;  many  more  are  well  nourished  on  much 
less. 

The  pecuniary  economy  of  food  is  seen  in  the  ac- 
companying charts,  and  those  articles  which  would  be 
classed  under  unnecessary  expense  may  be  easily  sepa- 
rated from  the  more  legitimate. 

Of  course  the  price  paid  for  food  cannot  be  regu-  Aesthetic 
lated  entirely  by  a  consideration  of  nutriment  alone. 
It  must  satisfy  aesthetic  demands  as  well.  Food  must 
be  enjoyed  in  order  to  be  thoroughly  well  digested. 
This  is  a  strong  argument  in  favor  of  a  moderate  use 
of  animal  foods.  Although  vastly  more  expensive 
than  vegetable  foods,  they  do  gratify  the  palate  of 
most  people  in  ways  which  vegetable  foods  do  not. 
This  fact  together  with  their  superiority  in  being  more 


433 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 
Chart  of  Composition  of  Foods 


Nutrients. 


Protein.     Fats,      Carbo-    Mineral 
hydrates,  matters, 


Non-nutrients. 

mm 

Water.     Refuse. 


Fuel  valnft. 
Calories. 


•without  bone. 


FOOD 


35 


Chart  of  Pecuniary  Economy  of  Food 


Fats. 


Carbohydrates 


FOOD  MATERIALS 


flmiutt  c/tudnMt  ajut  salaries  <f  fiuLvalu*  in  X>tntU 
worth*. 


tUu  ili> 


toooCaL  toooCat  ooooGU, 


From  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  142. 


435 


Real 
Purpose 


36  '    HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

easily  and  completely  digested  are  valid  reasons  for 
paying  somewhat  more  for  the  sake  of  securing  them. 

CLOTHING 

Clothing,  like  food,  should  be  considered  first  of 
all  in  its  relation  to  the  possible  increase  of  health  and 
efficiency.  Like  the  function  of  food,  this  is  too  much 
lost  sight  of  at  the  present  time  while  the  aesthetic 
side  of  the  subject  is  receiving  an  undue  share  of 
emphasis.  The  cost  of  clothing  is  too  largely  the  re- 
sult of  an  attempt  to  gratify  the  desire  to  please  the 
world  at  large,  rather  than  of  protecting  the  body. 
We  all  know  too  many  instances  of  the  rashest  ex- 
cesses to  which  this  may  lead,  destroying  all  hope  of 
realizing  higher  and  worthier  ideals.  A  safe-guard 
to  such  excess  lies  in  an  intelligent  training  and 
thoughtful  study  of  these  things. 

Sufficient  and  suitable  protection  from  clothing,  so 
that  one  is  enabled  to  meet  the  varying  changes  of  cli- 
mate without  loss  of  energy,  is  a  distinct  advantage, 
offering  grounds  for  reasonable  expenditure.  This 
should  debar  either  too  scant  provision,  or  too  great 
excess,  which  weakens  power  of  resistance.  The 
aesthetic  has  a  legitimate  place  in  the  consideration, 
but  should  be  subordinate  to  health,  if  the  two  ever 
seem  to  conflict.  There  is,  as  we  know,  the  greatest 
possible  difference  in  people  in  ability  to  "make  a  lit- 
tle go  a  long  way"  in  providing  satisfactorily  for  cloth- 
ing. Knowledge  and  care  will  aid  greatly  in  helping 


436 


HIGHER  LIFE 


37 


one  to  conform  to  the  laws  both  of  health  and  beauty. 
A  pleasing,  becoming  color  or  style  is  little,  if  any, 
more  expensive  than  one  which  is  unbecoming.  One 
should  seek  to  develop  true  individual  taste  and  ex- 
pression, relying  less  upon  the  not  infallible  dictum 
of  dress-makers.  To  secure  clothing,  then,  which  shall 
be  a  protection  from  heat  and  cold  should  be  the  first 
motive.  Along  with  this  should  go  a  recognition  that 
the  outer  garments  may  be  and  should  be  a  means  of 
contributing  to  the  pleasure  of  others,  through  a  cor- 
rect selection  of  pleasing  colors  and  graceful  forms. 
Both  these  may  be  entirely  legitimate  considerations, 
but  there  should  not  result,  from  over  emphasis,  a 
dwarfing  of  the  more  important  things  in  life. 

HIGHER   LIFE 

The  preceding  divisions  have  to  do  chiefly  with 
those  things  which  support  and  protect  the  physical 
well-being.  The  fifth  important  provision  should  be 
for  the  higher  life,  or  the  demands  of  the  intellectual 
and  spiritual  nature.  The  most  important  business 
of  any  life  is  to  develop  this  side  to  its  highest  possi- 
bilities and  to  find  its  fullest  expression.  Other  con- 
siderations are  in  reality  subordinate  to  this. 

Unless  a  definite  allowance  is  set  aside  for  the  pur- 
pose material  demands  encroach  until  all  is  spent. 
Even  if  something  more  is  realized  each  year  than  is 
spent,  the  money  itself  seems  too  often  to  be  the 
most  valuable  possession,  rather  than  the  comforts  and 


Good 
Taste 


437 


Wide 
Range 


38  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

aesthetic  ideals  which  it  might  secure.  It  is  a  battle, 
in  these  days  of  materialism,  to  reserve  one-fourth  of 
an  income  for  the  satisfaction  of  the  needs  of  the 
higher  nature,  yet  there  is  no  greater  need  in  our 
nation  than  that  of  more  families  who  realize  the  im- 
perativeness of  doing  it,  and  who  independently  insist 
upon  proving  it  to  be  possible.  Those  who  resolutely 
decide  upon  this  course  tend  to  more  refined  living, 
give  "more  thought  to  the  meaning  of  life,  to  the  object 
for  which  all  exertion  should  tend,  more  thought  for 
the  manner  of  accomplishing  a  given  result,  less  for 
the  money  value  of  it." 

It  means  making  a  place  for  ideals,  recognizing  their 
necessary  place  in  life,  and  resolutely  setting  one's  face 
toward  realizing  them.  Such  a  purpose  serves  as  an 
admirable  check  to  the  gratification  of  lower  desires 
and  unnecessary  spending,  while  whatever  is  found 
to  be  necessary  and  worthy  will  have  a  double  value 
because  of  the  thought -and  care  exercised  in  the  de- 
cision. 

There  is  a  very  wide  range  possible  for  difTerent 
tastes  in  ministering  to  the  higher  life.  One  will  pre- 
fer travel,  another  literature,  a  third  art,  while  church 
and  charity  must  find  place  in  all  higher  life.  It  mat- 
ters, perhaps,  less  what  particular  side  is  developed 
than  that  there  shall  be  conscious  effort  toward  a 
higher  and  a  fuller  life,  and  that  choice  rather  than 
idle  drifting  rules.  It  is  true  that  all  altruistic  motives 
which  look  to  the  good  of  another,  be  he  kin  or  other- 


438 


HIGHER  LIFE 


39 


wise,  are  more  full  of  elevating  influence  upon  a  life 
than  those  which  seek  merely  one's  own  highest  good. 
One  should  gain  the  habit  of  choosing  those  things 
that  endure,  and  have  abiding  value  rather  than  those 
of  momentary  or  temporary  advantage. 

Even  when  guided  by  an  impulse  to  make  provision 
for  one's  family,  it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  best 
possible  investment  which  can  be  made  for  a  child  is 
a  liberal  education.  All  that  anyone  in  normal  health 
and  strength  should  need  is  a  thorough  preparation 
to  do  his  or  her  work  efficiently,  with  motives  toward 
the  best  things  which  life  has  to  offer  and  the  possi- 
bilities of  a  better  life  than  his  parents  have  had. 
Too  liberal  provision  is  often  seen  to  destroy  incentive 
and  the  things  of  highest  value  are  cheapened  when 
they  cost  little  effort.  Progress  can  only  be  made 
through  striving.  Conscious  effort  is  as  necessary  for 
the  health  of  mind  as  for  health  of  body.  For  this 
reason  it  is  best  that  what  we  enjoy  should  be  the 
result  of  choice  and  denial,  and  we  should  learn  early 
to  pay  for  what  we  get.  A  surplus  should  be  reserved 
against  emergencies,  that  a  feeling  of  independence 
may  be  fostered,  yet  this  should  not  be  insisted  upon 
to  the  point  of  crippling  life. 

As  to  ways  of  saving,  the  field  is  large.  Some 
methods  employed  at  the  present  time  are  to  be  com- 
mended in  highest  terms.  Against  others  too  severe 
condemnation  cannot  be  passed.  Among  those  forms 
which  are  safe  may  be  classed  life  insurance,  savings 


Ways  of 
Saving 


439 


Life 
Insurance 


Railroad 
Securities 


40  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

banks,  loans  on  real  estate  and  investments  in  stocks 
and  bonds. 

In  selecting,  one  should  consider  whether  the  busi- 
ness which  the  company  is  transacting  is  legitimate 
and  also  whether  it  is  probably  permanent  because 
it  serves  a  real  public  use  with  elements  of  growth 
and  lasting  development,  or  whether  it  is  merely  a 
"flash  in  the  pan"  scheme.  Again,  it  is  important  to 
know  whether  the  company  has  sufficient  capital  to 
make  the  business  a  safe  one,  and  whether  the  man- 
agement, so  far  as  can  be  determined,  is  wise  and 
honest. 

Life  insurance  is  becoming  an  increasingly  popular 
form  of  saving.  With  a  reliable  company,  and  under 
some  of  the  favorable  arrangements  possible  at  the 
present  time,  such  as  terminal  endowment  policies, 
yielding  a  fair  interest  for  money  invested,  as  well 
as  insurance,  it  is  without  doubt  one  of  the  best 
methods.  Some  find  the  imperative  demand  to  meet 
the  annual  payments  a  very  helpful  check  upon  ex- 
penditure. There  is  not  the  risk  of  loss  through  fail- 
ure to  pay  at  any  time  which  formerly  existed,  since, 
in  emergencies,  money  can  be  loaned  on  the  insurance 
or  one  can  secure  at  some  sacrifice  the  return  of  the 
amount  paid  in. 

Railroad  securities  are  possibly  first  in  value,  such 
bonds,  if  good,  being  unquestionable  security  and 
yielding  good  return.  There  is  little  fluctuation  in 
value,  and  the  reports  are  frequent  and  controlled  by 


440 


HIGHER  LIFE  41 

state  law,  so  that  one  may  know  the  exact  condition 
of  the  investment  at  any  time. 

Loans  on  buildings,  or  real  estate  are  excellent 
forms  of  investment,  if  one  knows  beyond  question  the 
value  of  the  property  secured.  These  may  not  be  as 
readily  transferred  or  their  value  realized,  as  with 
stocks  and  bonds. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  for  the  ordinary  in- 
vestors in  our  country  any  investment  yielding  over 
4  1-2  or  5  per  cent  is  to  be  classed  as  a  risk,  and  is 
not  consistent  with  sound  finance.  A  safe  investment 
yielding  that  return  is  far  wiser  than  a  questionable 
one  promising  more.  A  high  interest  rate  is  almost  in- 
variably, in  the  very  nature  of  things,  a  warning  of 
insecurity.  Shrewd  capitalists  of  the  country  are  cer- 
tain to  know  of  any  especially  favorable  opportunities 
and  seize  upon  them,  if  desirable,  so  that  the  small 
investors  should  not  look  for  phenomenal  returns. 

The  frequent  reports  of  failures,  and  cases  of  those 
involved  who  have  met  with  pitiable  losses  emphasizes 
the  danger  and  evils  of  speculation.  These  often  rise 
in  the  form  of  local  crazes,  with  heated  booming  for 
a  short  lived  career,  or  as  investment  in  some  gold  or 
copper  mines  at  too  great  distance  to  be  personally 
investigated.  These  should  be  condemned  and  avoided 
as  almost  without  exception  dangerous.  Women  are 
found  to  be  particularly  susceptible  to  such  alluring 
opportunities  to  "get  rich  quick"  because  of  failure  in 
training  in  sound  business  principles. 


Safe 
Interest 


Get-Rich- 
Quick 
Ventures 


441 


What 

Accounts 

Should 

Show 


HOUSEHOLD  ACCOUNTS 

The  management  of  the  money  affairs  of  a  family  is 
usually  the  most  perplexing  part  of  its  domestic  prob- 
lem. Yet,  in  spite  of  this  fact,  the  least  candid  study 
and  thought  are  given  to  it.  The  value  of  accurate 
accounts,  as  well  as  their  necessity,  is  recognized  in 
the  entire  business  world.  Few  associations  of  indi- 
viduals are  organized  for  any  specific  purpose  without 
careful  regard  to  the  maintenance  of  the  proper  rela- 
tion of  income  and  outgo.  The  value  and  importance 
of  this  is  no  less  to  the  housekeeper  than  to  the  banker 
or  grocer.  The  appallingly  frequent  examples  of  reck- 
less disregard  in  this  respect,  leading  to  a  constantly 
increasing  number  of  unpaid  bills  and  final  ruin,  ought 
to  teach  the  sad  lesson  of  the  unthrifty.  Yet  statisti- 
cians tell  us  that  at  least  one-half  of  our  well-to-do 
families  are  seriously  handicapped  by  debt.  Along 
with  that  fact  should  be  emphasized  another — the 
number  of  families  in  which  accounts  of  personal  and 
family  expenses  are  kept  is  astonishingly  small,  and 
in  few  instances  where  such  records  are  kept  is  .suffi- 
cient study  given  to  them  to  lead  to  advance  in  stand- 
ard of  living  from  year  to  year. 

In  conducting  any  business  it  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  (i)  to  follow  the  receipts  and  expenses, 
(2)  to  keep  a  record  of  investments  and  (3)  to  deter- 
mine at  the  end  of  the  year,  or  shorter  period,  the 
results  of  the  business  and  the  exact  condition  of  the 

42 


442 


HOUSEHOLD  ACCOUNTS  43 

capital.  The  modern  household  is  an  intricate  business 
concern.  Its  financial  administration  demands  as  per- 
fect exactness,  order  and  method  as  any  other,  if  it  is 
to  attain  in  any  degree  its  possible  efficiency.  Such 
exactness  alone  renders  the  accounts  of  any  real  worth. 
They  may  be  made  of  priceless  value  in  directing  the 
activities  and  ministering  to  the  comfort  of  all  in  the 
home. 

The  question  who  shall  be  head  bookkeeper  and  The 
director  of  the  household  expenditures  will  probably  Keeper* 
be  best  decided  by  determining  which  grown  member 
of  the  family  has  a  genius  for  accounts.  It  naturally 
falls  to  the  housekeeper  as  the  one  who  can  manage 
best  and  has  the  most  intimate  acquaintance  with  the 
entire  situation.  In  any  case,  it  should  be  one  who 
loves  it  or  who  sees  in  it  possibilities  large  enough  to 
create  a  willingness  to  give  the  necessary  thought  and 
time  to  make  it  a  success.  It  has  been  made  a  profitable 
and  interesting  business  training  in  some  families  for 
growing  boys  and  girls.  Possibly  promotion  from 
the  keeping  of  their  own  personal  accounts  to  those 
of  the  household  might  be  made  an  excellent  stimulus. 
With  a  clear,  convenient  system,  adapted  to  the  needs 
of  the  particular  records  to  be  kept,  and  with  a  busi- 
ness-like promptness  in  entering  each  night  the  trans- 
actions of  the  day  while  fresh  in  mind,  what  is  often 
looked  upon  as  a  perplexing  hardship  may  become  an 
interesting  study.  A  helpful  aid  to  memory  is  a  card 
neatly  fitted  into  the  purse,  upon  which  sufficient  entry 


443 


44  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

may  be  made  at  the  time  of  the  expenditure  to  assist 
in  recalling  the  details  when  they  are  wanted  for  enter- 
ing in  the  account.  A  shopping  list  filled  out  with 
prices  as  one  purchases  is  a  useful  aid  to  memory. 
Systems  The  system  employed  in  keeping  the  accounts  may 
be  very  simple.  The  only  necessary  requirement  is 
that  it  be  sufficiently  complete  to  record  in  concise, 
available  form  the  necessary  facts  to  indicate  clearly 
the  details  of  income  and  outgo.  It  must  be  possible 
to  compare  these  two  sides  of  the  account  at  any  time 
in  order  to  prove  that  the  balance  as  shown  by  the 
account  corresponds  with  the  cash  on  hand. 

Various  systems  have  been  devised  and  successfully 
used.  The  efficiency  of  anyone  depends  quite  as  much, 
perhaps,  upon  the  thorough,  painstaking  effort  of  the 
user  to  bring  it  to  its  utmost  point  of  efficiency  and 
utility  as  upon  the  system  itself. 

Envelope  Some  find  a  series  of  envelopes  a  very  convenient 
Method  form  of  keeping  the  records.  Each  envelope  is  labeled 
with  the  name  of  the  particular  division  of  the 
expenses  which  it  is  to  hold.  After  it  has  been  decided 
what  proportion  shall  be  spent  for  each  division  the 
sum  is  put  into  its  envelope,  to  be  drawn  as  needed. 

A  slip  of  paper  or  card  in  the  envelope  records  each 
addition,  and  the  expenditures  from  that  envelope 
during  the  week  or  month,  or  a  cash  account  is  also 
kept  of  the  household  expenses  and  personal  account. 
Any  division  like  the  following  may  be  made  with  the 
envelopes : 


444 


HOUSEHOLD  ACCOUNTS 


45 


Suppose  a  family  consisting  of  a  man  and  wife  live 
in  a  steam-heated  flat  and  have  an  income  of  $30  a 
week.  The  following  divisions  might  be  made  each 
week: 

Rent $7.00 

Household  expenses 7.00 

Fuel  and  light i.oo 

Man's    personal    allowance    and    expenses, 

including  lunches  and  car  fares 5.00 

Madam's  personal  allowance 4.00 

Extras  and  emergencies,  including  dentist, 

doctor,  etc 2.00 

Church  and  charities i.oo 

Insurance  and  savings  bank 3.00 


$30.00 

For  amusements  there  may  be  a  separate  envelope, 
or,  as  there  are  four  months  in  which  there  will  be 
five  payments  to  the  envelope,  these  extra  four  pay- 
ments may  be  used  for  amusements  in  connection  with 
household  expenses. 

A  system  like  this  has  the  advantage  of  keeping 
always  before  one  just  what  is  at  hand  to  draw  from. 
The  leading  disadvantages  over  other  methods  is  its 
cumbrousness.  It  involves  the  keeping  of  a  considerable 
amount  of  money  on  hand  and  also  presents  a  great 
temptation  to  borrow  from  one  envelope  to  another 
for  making  change,  etc.,  which  is  likely  to  lead  to 
confusion  of  accounts. 


445 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


Journal 


If  the  records  for  the  envelopes  were  kept  on  cards, 
these  might  be  filed  in  a  card  index  for  comparison 
and  permanent  reference  as  explained  later. 

On  the  whole,  a  system  by  which  the  accounts  are 
finally  entered  in  books  intended  for  that  purpose 
proves  most  satisfactory.  Such  books  may  be  pro- 
cured already  ruled  for  entries,  or  a  blank  book  can 
easily  be  ruled  as  desired.  For  a  complete  record  the 
same  books  are  useful  as  for  other  accountants — a 
journal,  ledger  and  balance  sheet.  The  journal  and 
ledger  may  well  be  combined  in  one  book,  as  will  be 
explained  in  connection  with  Table  III. 

The  household  account  records  exchanges  whereby 
the  housewife  buys  the  goods  or  services  which  her 
household  needs,  giving  in  exchange  of  her  means. 
The  simplest  statement  of  such  exchanges  is  made  in 
a  journal.  A  single  page  is  used  to  enter  both  receipts 
and  expenses.  Thus : 

TABLE    I 


1904. 

Received. 

Paid. 

Jan.    1 

Cash  in  hand 

$20  00 

2 

Washing  
Grocer  

$1.50 
8  00 

3 

Coal  

14.00 

Flour. 

4  75 

5 

Salary  

50  00 

Car  fares  

.50 

•< 

Cleaning                                  .            

1  25 

8 

Eggs  

1  10 

Washing                                   

1  50 

10 

Potatoes  

1.70 

$70.00 
34.30 

$34.30 

" 

Balance  on  hand  

$35.70 

446 


HOUSEHOLD  ACCOUNTS 


47 


If  purchases  are  itemized  elsewhere  for  reference, 
such  an  account  as  this  may  contain  sufficient  data. 
It  is  possible  to  itemize  more  fully  in  this  journal 
record  if  desired,  as  is  illustrated  in  Table  II. 


TABLE     II 


1903. 

Cr. 

Dr. 

Daily 
Totals. 

Feb.     1 

2 

By  balance  brought  forward  .  .  . 
To  washing  

$75.70 

$1  50 

3 

2  tons  coal  at  $7  per  ton  
3  bu.  potatoes  at  80c.  per  bu 

14.00 
2  40 

$15.50 

5  doz.  eggs  at  22c.  per  doz  

1  10 

3.50 

5 

cleaning  one  day. 

1  25 

rent  for  January  
8  Ibs.  beef  at  14c.  per  Ib 

15  00 
1  12 

17  37 

8 

washing  

1.50 

1.50 

10 

Bv  salary  .  . 

50  00 

" 

To  car  fares.  

.60 

.60 

Totals  .  .  . 

$125.70 

$38  47 

(Balance.  $87.23.) 

In  the  second  table  it  will  be  noted  that  the  terms 
usually  employed  in  bookkeeping  are  introduced. 
These  are  easily  understood.  The  term  "By"  intro- 
duces all  terms  belonging  to  the  credit  or  receipt 
column;  the  "To,"  items  of  the  debit  or  expense  col- 
umn. The  abbreviation  "Cr."  for  credit  heads  the 
column  of  receipts,  indicating  that  the  house  account 
has  that  much  more  to  its  credit,  while  the  "Dr." 
abbreviation  for  debit  shows  to  what  extent  the  house 
has  become  indebted  or  has  placed  itself  under  obliga- 
tion for  benefits  received. 

Table  II  also  includes  a  column  for  daily  totals, 
which  carries  the  account  a  step  further  in  efficiency. 
In  the  final  footing  up  of  the  columns  these  totals  are 


Terms 


Daily 
Totals 


447 


Use  of 
Ledger 


Credit 
Accounts 


48  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

a  convenience,  since  it  is  always  easier  to  add  a  short 
list  of  large  figures  than  a  long  column  of  small  items. 
It  is  sometimes  helpful  also  to  be  able  to  refer  to  the 
entire  day's  expenditures. 

As  will  be  readily  seen,  the  details  of  expenditures, 
when  entered  as  above  in  the  journal,  are  not  easily 
referred  to.  One  could  at  any  time  make  a  summary 
of  any  division  which  would  show  the  amount  spent 
for  any  one  class  of  purchases,  as  clothes,  rent  or  food. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  few  seem  to  make  such  reviews 
when  the  accounts  are  kept  in  this  way,  finding  it  a 
seemingly  endless  •  task  to  assort  the  different  items 
after  they  have  become  so  thoroughly  confused  as 
they  do  in  the  journal  account.  In  this  way  the  great- 
est benefit  of  an  account  is  lost.  Their  highest  value 
is  in  one's  being  able  to  bring  each  set  of  expenses 
together,  so  that  comparison  of  different  divisions  may 
be  made,  and  a  proper  proportion  maintained.  It  is 
far  better  to  transfer  the  details  of  an  account  to  a 
second  book,  called  a  ledger,  which  may  for  conven- 
ience be  divided  into  sections,  each  devoted  to  its  par- 
ticular class  of  items. 

The  number  of  credit  accounts  should  be  limited  to 
as  few  as  possible,  usually  to  grocer,  butcher  and  doc- 
tor. Frequent  settlement  of  such  accounts  should 
be  made.  The  family  physician  has  too  frequent  occa- 
sion to  comment  upon  the  unbusiness-like  way  that 
family  bills  are  allowed  to  accumulate  from  year  to 
year  without  attention.  If  a  physician  is  tardy  on  his 


448 


HOUSEHOLD  ACCOUNTS  49 

side  and  does  not  present  bills  promptly  he  is  usually 
agreeably  surprised,  to  have  it  called  for,  as  it  should  be. 

The  most  complete  and  concise  way  of  recording  the  combin 
facts  to  be  preserved  is  to  be  found  in  the  combination  and™8"1 
of  journal  and  ledger,  such  as  is  illustrated  in  Table  Led§er 
III.  This  will  prove  in  the  end  to  be  one  of  the  most 
convenient,  suggestive  and  helpful  arrangements  yet 
devised.  Opposite  pages  of  an  account  book  may  be 
used,  the  left-hand  page  for  the  journal  record,  the 
right-hand  for  the  ledger.  The  ledger  items  are 
classified  under  a  few  typical  heads  and  the  amounts 
expended  for  each  are  entered  apart  from  the  whole. 
This  tenders  it  very  easy  at  any  time  to  consult  any 
one  division,  where  all  the  record  is  clearly  before  one. 
The  divisions  used  correspond  to  those  suggested  in 
the  discussion  of  Division  of  Household  Expenditures, 
page  21.  These  are  optional  both  in  character  and 
number,  but  will  in  the  main  prove  to  be  excellent 
general  heads.  Others  may  suggest  themselves  as 
desirable  for  an  individual  family.  Multiolication  of 
details  must  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible,  to  avoid 
confusion.  Particulars  as  to  prices  paid  may  well  be 
left  to  the  pass  books  or  bills  of  butcher  or  grocer,  or 
in  a  separate  memorandum  book. 


449 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

TABLE  III 


Date  of 
Receipts  and 
Expenditure. 

Receipts. 

Expenses. 

Sum. 

Daily  Total. 

i 

o 
h 

Car  Fares  and 
Rent. 

[rS  1  Operating 
|  g  j  Expenses. 

Clothing. 

8 

3 

fe 

& 

a 

w 

Sources 

Sums. 

1905. 
Jan.l 

"    2 

"    3 

"    4 
"    5 

"     8 

Cash  in 
hand. 

$90.00 

Flour  
Dress   Ma- 
terial. 

Meat  ....;; 

Coal    and 
Oil  

$4.75 

6.00 
1  25 

7.50 

$19.50 

$4.75 
1.25 

$6.00 

Salary 

150.00 

Eggs  
Car  Fares 
Washing.. 

1.10 
.20 
1.00 

2  30 

1.10 

20 

1.00 

— 

Rent  
Car  Fares. 

35.00 
.40 

35.40 

$35.00 
.40 

Groceries.. 
Meat  

3  25 
1.10 

4  35 

3  25 
1.10 

$6.00 

1.00 

Total. 

Church 
Collect'n. 

1.00 

1.00 

$240.00 

$62.55 

$62.55 

$11.45 

$35.60 

$8.50 

$1.00 

In  carrying  on  weekly  or  monthly  accounts  with 
butcher,  grocer  or  at  dry  goods  stores  various  methods 
are  employed  for  keeping  a  memorandum  of  the  char- 
acter and  size  of  purchases  made.  If  slips  are  sent 
with  the  goods  when  delivered  they  should  be  pre- 
served on  file,  to  be  compared  with  the  bill  when  ren- 
dered. Pass  books  are  sometimes  used.  In  that  case 
the  entries  should  be  made  in  the  presence  of  the  pur- 
chaser, to  avoid  error  or  deception. 

Household  accounts  should  be  balanced  at  least 
every  week.  A  daily  verifying  with  cash  on  hand  is 


450 


HOUSEHOLD  ACCOUNTS  51 

easiest  and  saves  time  in  the  end.  These  daily  bal- 
ances may  be  indicated  in  pencil  as  the  aim  is  to  prove 
the  account  to  be  correct,  thus  showing  that  no  item 
has  been  omitted.  Every  month's  accounts  should 
be  balanced  on  the  last  day  of  the  month  and  a  new 
page  opened  for  a  new  account  for  the  next  month. 
The  first  item  on  the  new  page  should  read  as  in 
Table  II,  "By  balance  brought  forward " 

One  should  set  a  time   for  the  final  balancing  of     Yearly 
accounts  and  opening  a  fresh  record.     This  is  usually 
done    at    the    close    of    the  calendar    year,    although 
another  time  might  be  more  convenient,  as  the  holiday 
season   brings   other   extras   demanding  time. 

The  facts  to  be  preserved  on  a  balance  sheet  are  Balance 
available  after  this  summary  of  the  year's  expenses 
is  made.  The  purpose  of  a  balance  sheet  is  to  preserve 
from  year  to  year  a  statement  of  the  final  condition  at 
the  end  of  each  year  for  helpful  comparison.  It  may  be 
that  the  income  has  not  been  sufficient  to  meet  the  de- 
mands upon  it,  when  a  deficit  with  appear.  Or  the  in- 
come may  be  just  enough  to  cover  expenses,  or  there 
may  be  a  balance  of  the  credit  side.  A  properly  man- 
aged household  will  show  a  steadily  increasing  gain  of 
this  nature,  provided  no  exceptional  and  unexpected 
bills  arise  such  as  result  from  long  illness  and  the  like. 

An  example  of  a  properly  managed  entry  and  a 
satisfactory  showing  is  given  in  Table  IV. 


Household  Account  Book,  with  division  of  income,  64  page,  cloth  bound,  50  cents,  from 
the  School. 


451 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

TABLE    IV 


Income  for  year  1902... 

Cr. 

$2,500 

Dr. 

Expense  for  year  

$2,250 

Balance  in  hand.                         ' 

250 

52,500 

$2,500 

The  household  accounts  may  be  kept  by  means  of 
the  card  index  system,  which  is  perhaps  the  best  meth- 
od of  keeping  any  and  all  sorts  of  records,  such  as 
addresses,  invoices  and 'miscellaneous  memoranda. 


CARD  INDEX  BOXES. 

A  small  linen  or  pasteboard  box  containing  a  set 
of  alphabetical  guide  cards  and  some  two  hundred 
ruled  cards  in  sizes  5x3  or  6x4  inches  may  be  pur- 
chased for  from  fifty  cents  to  a  dollar.  These  cards  are 
ruled  horizontally  and  perpendicularly  as  in  a  cash 
book,  or  come  without  the  perpendicular  rulings. 
Various  systems  may  be  used.  The  most  concise  and 


452 


HOUSEHOLD  ACCOUNTS 


53 


simple  is  invariably  the  best,  and  it  may  be  so  done 
as  to  make  further  entering  in  a  book  superfluous. 

One  plan  now  being  used  is  as  follows :     Under  the 
letter  C  in  the  alphabetical  index  are  three  cards  for 


\<905 
JAN. 

CASH  RECEIVED 

1 

Cash  of?  htffftf 

51.  64 

6 

salary                     *^ 

eo.ao 

16 

From  J.M?S.oo  safe  of  books 

14.00 

23 

••    Ma0ax/r?e  A/ovJIrt/cte 

7.50 

F£B. 

153.14 

6 

Salary 

80.00 

20 

Extra   werk  for  Sterling 

10.00 

24^.14 

CARD  CASH  ACCOUNT. 

cash,  (i)  an  account  of  cash  received,  (2)  an  account 
of  cash  disbursed  and  (3)  the  cash  balance.  It  may 
take  a  card  for  each  month  for  Cash  Received  or  not, 
depending  upon  the  items.  In  the  case  cited  the  num- 
ber of  cards  used  during  the  year  for  Cash  Received 
was  six,  two  months  on  each. 

Cash  disbursed  takes  at  least  one  card  a  month, 
possibly  more  if  there  are  many  classified  accounts. 
The  items  on  this  card  are  the  totals  of  items  on  single 
cards  devoted  to  daily  or  less  frequent  purchases.  That 
is,  under  the  letter  R,  as  indicated  by  the  index  at  the 


Typical 
Method 


453 


54 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


right  on  the  Cash  Disbursed  card,  illustrated,  is  found 
the  card  "Rents"  with  record  of  rental  payments,  when, 
to  whom,  and  how  paid,  if  by  check  or  cash.  Market- 
ing includes  both  the  grocer's  and  butcher's  accounts, 
hence  the  index  letters  G  and  B.  These  are  itemized 


A  N. 


CASH  DISBURSEP, 


ftent 


Urrtfer  P. 


Gas 


MitK. 


M. 


Ltc. 


s. 


Carfare 


C. 


P. 


Market/w 


1.70 


2.&0 


6.00 


2LJA 


3.3$ 


8.00 


1.25 


64.36 


CASH  PAID  CARD. 


Bank 

Account 

Car<J 


on  the  cards  "Groceries"  and  "Butcher."  If  the  ac- 
counts are  heavy  it  would  be  better  to  devote  three 
cards  to  these  items  divided  into  groceries,  meats,  and 
vegetables. 

The  illustrations  will  probably  make  the  divisions 
clear,  but  these  divisions  are  not  arbitrary,  the  person 
keeping  the  household  accounts  can  adapt  her  own 
system. 

If  the  housekeeper  has  a  bank  account  a  card  should 
be  devoted  to  this  to  check  up  with  bank  book  and 


454 


HOUSEHOLD  ACCOUNTS 


55 


checks  cashed  and  used  for  cash.    This  card  should  be 
as  follows: 


1905 

JAN. 

BANK  ACCOUNT 

J 

on   hand 

582J6 

Deposited  //?  January 

80.00 

662./fe 

FEB. 

Drew  checks  asfftrtoek 

33M 

1 

#/7    /W/</, 

62&S4 

BANK  ACCOUNT  CARD. 

With  this  card  system  a  weekly  balance  may  be  kept 
instead  of  the  monthly  balance  as  illustrated.  The  ac- 
counts are  so  arranged  that  items  may  be  found  or 
traced  with  ease.  For  instance  if  in  comparing  the 
January  expenditures  on  the  Cash  Balance  card,  it  is 
found  that  it  is  much  more  than  for  February,  it  is 
desirable  to  know  why.  We  take  the  two  cards  of 
Cash  Disbursed,  the  one  for  January  and  the  one  for 
February  and  compare  the  items.  There  it  may  be 
found  that  the  gas  bill  in  January  was  more  than  in 
February,  that  more  car  fare  was  used,  and  evidently 
some  extra  supplies  purchased.  By  turning  to  the 
card  devoted  to  Supplies,  these  may  be  noted  and  the 
extra  amount  used  at  once  found. 


Balance 
Card 


455 


Filed  for 
Reference 


55  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

The  entire  account,  daily,  weekly  and  yearly,  is  in 
compact  form  and  if  mistakes  occur  it  is  a  more  simple 
matter  to  destroy  and  make  a  new  card  than  to  fix  a 
book.  Like  any  system  of  keeping  accounts  to  be 
accurate  and  helpful  this  one  demands  promptness  and 
accuracy  in  putting  down  items. 

In  order  to  be  of  use  from  year  to  year  in  comparing 
the  increase  or  lessening  of  expenses  the  accounts 
must  be  filed  away  for  reference.  A  set  of  cards  takes 
up  not  more  than  six  inches  in  length,  four  in  height 


1905 
J/AN. 

CASH    BALANCE  (MONTWI^ 

i 

On  frcmcf 

5/.64 

TAN. 

Received                             \ 

10  150 

H 

1S3J4 

If 

spent 

64.36 

FCB.I 

On  hand 

88.7B 

9' 
ff 

Rece/Ved 

—  = 

90.00 
17838 

II 

^pent 

53  A2 

MAR.1 

Or?  hand 

12S.36 

CASH  BALANCE  CARD. 

and  less  than  two  inches  space  in  thickness.  The 
entire  set  can  be  put  in  a  desk  drawer  or  pigeon  hole 
ready  for  easy  reference.  Or  if  preferred  a  small 
tin  or  wooden  box  designed  for  such  purpose  and 
made  the  exact  size,  may  be  purchased  for  the  filing 
away  of  the  year's  accounts. 


456 


HOUSEHOLD  ACCOUNTS 


57 


Unless  desired  for  some  special  purpose  it  is  not 
necessary  to  save  the  entire  itemized  account  for  the 
year,  for  the  weekly  or  monthly  grocery,  butcher's, 
gas,  milk  and  other  accounts  may  be  brought  together 
each  on  a  single  card  and  kept  with -the  cards  devoted 
to  the  cash  and  bank  accounts  for  future  reference. 


1905 


A 


10 


13 


17 


3  0az.  egs 


1  Bottle  vanilla  j$ 


4  Lt?s.  Coffee 


1  Box  &omino  sugar 


4-Lfrs. 


32 


/0/A5\  granulated  sugar 


3  "      tarcf  .30  /  bu.otatd 


12    orawees 


Parcf 


1.11 


30 


1.40 


.so 


128 


.60 


ffo 


GROCERY  ACCOUNT  CARD. 


The  chief  disadvantage  of  the  card  system  outlined, 
in  comparison  with  the  book  system,  is  that  the  cash 
balance  on  hand  is  not  so  easily  ascertained. 

In  any  system,  it  is  necessary  to  compare  frequently 
the  amount  of  cash  actually  in  the  purse  (or  purse  and 
bank  combined)  with  the  balance  as  shown  by  the 
accounts.  If  this  is  not  done  there  is  usually  an  unac- 
counted for  shortage  which  must  be  charged  to  "sun- 
dries," "miscellaneous,"  and  the  like — a  most  unsatis- 
factory procedure. 


457 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


Classifica- 
tion 


Alcott  Stockwell,  in  discussing  "The  Keeping  of 
Household  Accounts"  in  the  April,  May  and  June 
(1904)  numbers  of  The  Home  Science  Magazine, 
gives  three  tables  of  classification  which  may  be  help- 
ful in  suggesting  headings  for  divisions  of  expendi- 
ture in  the  accounts.  These  are  as  follows : 


TABLE  I 

Classification  of  Household  Expenses. 


Housekeeping 

a.  Provisions 

b.  Ice 

c.  Fuel 

d.  Rent 

e.  Dometic  Service 

f.  Miscellaneous 
House-furnishing 

a.    General  (including  all  fur- 
niture 


b.    Kitchen  and  Dining-room 
Library  Supplies 

a.  Books  and  Periodicals 

b.  Stationery  and  postage 
Miscellaneous 

a.  Sundries  (expressage,  flow- 
er for  house,  thread,  etc.) 

b.  Other  (fire  insurance,  mov 
ing,  telephone  service,  etc.) 

Gifts 


TABLE   II 


Classification  of  Personal  Expenses  (in  family}. 


Clothing 

a.  New  clothing,  Foot  wear, 
and  Furnishings 

b.  Repairs  to  clothing  and 
Foot  wear 

Transportation  (street  car,rail- 

road,  hack  fares,  etc.) 
Personal  Services 

a.  Toilet 

b.  Medical 

c.  Dental 
Recreation 

a.  Outings  (including  bicycle, 
pony,  canoe,  camera  and  sup- 
plies, etc.) 


b.  Entertainment  (may  in- 
clude anything  as  medium  of 
diversion,  as  amateur  pho- 
tography, musical  instru- 
ments; 

Education 

a.  Books,  Stationery  and  Sup- 
plies 

b.  Tuition  and  Lectures. 
Miscellaneous 

a.  Sundries  (soda  water,  con- 
fectionery, cigars,  etc.) 

b.  Other  (any  large  expense 
not  included) 


458 


HOUSEHOLD  ACCOUNTS  59 

.TABLE  III 

Classification  of  Personal  Expenses  (single  individual} 

1.  Clothing  b.    Entertainments 

a.  New  Clothing,  Foot  wear,         7.    Education 

and  Furnishings  a.    Books,    Stationery  and 

b.  Repairs  to  clothing  and  Supplies 

Foot  wear  b.    Tuition  and  Lectures 

2.  Board  and  Lodging  8.    Miscellaneous 

3.  Transportation  a.    Sundries 

4.  Personal  Services  b.    Others 

a.  Toilet  (shampoo,  manicure, 
chiropodist,  etc.) 

b.  Medical  Total  Expenses 

c.  Dental  9.    Gifts 

5.  Library  Supplies  10.    Investments 

a.  Books  and  Periodicals  a.    Bank 

b.  Stationery  and  Postage  b.    Other 

3.    Recreations  11.    On  hand  at  end  of  month 

a.    Outings 

In  following  these  headings  it  would  be  well  for 
Table  I  to  include  a  division  for  investments,  unless 
a  separate  small  account  book  is  left  for  these  with 
such  heading  as: 

a.  Savings  Banks  c.    Real  Estate 

b.  Life  Insurance  d.    Loans 

Charities  and  Church  may  be  classed  under  gifts  or 
investments,  preferably  the  latter,  as  they  indicate 
within  proper  limits  the  most  commendable  form  of 
investment. 


459 


THE  BANK  ACCOUNT 

Comparatively  few  women  appreciate  the  advantage 
and  convenience  of  having  a  bank  account.  There  is 
a  mistaken  idea  current  that  banks  are  solely  for  those 
who  have  a  balance  to  invest.  This  is  true  only  of 
savings  banks;  with  this  exception,  the  housewife 
may  select  the  most  convenient  bank  of  whose  financial 
soundness  she  is  assured  and  open  her  account.  In 
this  way  the  bank  becomes  merely  a  temporary  safe 
deposit,  vault,  and  checks,  the  easiest  and  safest  way 
of  making  all  except  small  cash  payments. 
Pass  Having  become  identified,  with  her  account  accepted, 

the  depositor  is  presented  with  what  is  called  a  pass 
book.  This  she  keeps  and  presents  with  each  amount 
of  money  to  be  deposited.  The  receiving  teller  makes 
a  record  of  each  deposit  on  the  left-hand  page  of  this 
book,  and  when  the  book  is  balanced  from  time  to 
time  a  statement  is  inserted,  on  the  right-hand  page, 
of  the  amount  drawn  out  and  the  balance  remaining. 
Deposit  In  depositing,  the  housewife  or  her  messenger  fills 
out  what  is  known  as  a  deposit  ticket,  which  is  always 
to  be  found  provided  at  the  bank.  If  it  is  necessary 
or  more  convenient  at  any  time  to  send  the  deposit  by 
a  messenger  he  should  always  fill  out  this  blank  in 
the  name  of  the  depositor,  since  it  is  not  necessarily 
her  signature,  but  merely  a  record  of  her  deposit.  If 
there  be  checks  to  be  indorsed  before  depositing,  that 
is  a  different  matter.  Those  must  be  indorsed  before 
delivering  them  to  the  messenger,  and  should  be  made 
payable  to  the  bank ;  they  are  then  payable  only  to  the 

60 


460 


THE  BANK  ACCOUNT 


61 


DEPOSITED  IX  THE 


EACH  CHECK  SEPARATELY.    '* 


bank.  The  deposit  ticket  is  a  printed  form  indicating 
deposits  in  specie,  bills  and  checks.  Sometimes  the 
ticket  reads  for  gold  and 
silver,  instead  of  specie, 
as  is  seen  in  the  following 
form,  illustrating  a  de- 
posit ticket  properly  filled 
out  for  presenting  to  the 
receiving  teller.  This  is 
handed  in  with  pass  book 
and  deposit  at  the  window 
marked  "Receiving  Tell- 
er," where  the  deposit  is 
counted  and  the  amount 
compared  with  the  de- 
positor's figures,  checks 
examined  to  ascertain 
whether  they  have  been 
properly  filled  out  and  in- 
dorsed and,  last  of  all,  the 
amount  of  the  deposit  is 
entered  in  the  pass  book, 
which  is  returned  to  the 
one  presenting  it. 

Checks,  drafts,  money  orders  or  express  money 
orders  can  always  be  sent  by  mail  for  deposit  with 
safety  if  properly  indorsed. 


Kite 

Do  Mars 
<*<? 

Cents 

t-0 

Cold 

Silver 

ye 

Checks               .    ,     - 

ThUcJzfc&Tttt 

/J 

?v 

p 

JL<f 

t*9 

Total  $ 

60 

4*6 

Deposit  Ticket  Properly 
Filled  Out. 


461 


62 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


Checks 


Indorsement 


Every  depositor  is  presented  with  a  check  book. 
This  is  a  book  of  blank  checks,  arranged  either  several 
on  a  page,  attached  by  a  perforated  line  to  a  side, 
which  is  called  a  stub,  or,  as  in  "pocket"  check  book, 
with  a  single  check  forming  the  page.  In  this  case 


A  CHECK  FILLED  OUT. 

pages  are  inserted  between  each  second  and  third 
check,  or  between  every  check,  upon  which  a  record 
may  be  kept,  as  upon  the  stubs.  A  check  is  a  written 
order,  dated  and  numbered,  directing  the  bank  in 
which  the  writer's  money  is  deposited  to  pay  the  sum 
stated  to  the  bearer  of  the  check,  some  person  named, 
or  to  the  order  of  the  person  indicated. 

This  check  is  equivalent  to  the  sum  of  money  named 
upon  it  anywhere  the  rightful  bearer  presents  it.  It 
may  be  deposited,  presented  in  payment  of  bills  or 
cashed  upon  being  indorsed. 

To  receive  the  money  on  a  check  it  is  necessary  for 
it  to  be  indorsed  by  the  person  to  whom  it  is  made 
payable.  To  indorse  a  check  properly  it  should  be 
held  by  the  upper  left-hand  corner,  turned  and  the 


462 


THE  BANK  ACCOUNT  63 

name  written  across  the  back  about  on-third  down 
the  length  of  the  check.  Other  indorsements  should 
follow  the  first,  in  order.  The  signature  used  in 
indorsing  a  check  should  always  conform  exactly  to 
that  on  the  face,  even  if  that  should  by  mistake  be  not 
correct.  The  simple  signature  across  the  back  makes 
it  possible  for  anyone  to  draw  its  value  who  may  come 
into  possession  of  it.  For  the  sake  of  safety  it  is 
always  well  to  limit  the  payment  by  making  it  payable 
to  the  order  of  anyone  to  whom  it  is  desired  to  transfer 
it.  It  is  best  to  observe  this  under  all  circumstances, 
unless  one  presents  the  check  in  person  for  cashing,  or 
must  send  it  to  be  cashed  by  someone  not  known.  It 
makes  it  impossible  for  it  to  be  of  any  value  to  a 
chance  finder  should  it  be  lost.  Thus : 


John  L.  Bentley 


Simple  Indorsement. 


Pay  to  the  order  of 
Henry  E.  Johnson 
John  L.  Bentley 


Safe  Indorsement. 


Sometimes  a  check  is  made  out  so  that  the  payee's 
name  differs  from  that  used  in  the  bank.  This  will 
happen  frequently  with  married  women.  In  such  case 
it  is  usually  necessary  to  sign  both  names.  For 
example,  a  check  made  payable  to  Mrs.  Henry  Couch 
would  be  indorsed  "Mrs.  Henry  Couch,"  followed  by 
the  proper  signature,  "Harriet  B.  Couch"  underneath, 
since  the  given  name  of  a  depositor  is  preferred  at 
the  bank. 


463 


64 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


Vouchers 


Over- 
drawing 


Counter- 
manding 


Stubs 


If  for  any  reason  one  desires  to  draw  cash  on  her 
own  account  it  may  be  done  by  making  out  a  check, 
using  the  word  "Cash"  or  "Myself"  in  place  of  other 
name. 

A  check  eventually  returns  to  the  depositor's  own 
bank,  is  paid,  cancelled  and  returned  to  her  when  her 
pass  book  is  balanced,  as  a  voucher  or  receipt  of  pay- 
ment. The  vouchers  are  perfect  receipts  of  all  pay- 
ments made  by  check. 

Care  must  always  be  exercised  not  to  overdraw  in 
checks  the  amount  of  one's  deposit  in  the  bank.  When 
this  is  done  one  suffers  the  humiliation  of  having  the 
bank  refuse  to  honor  the  check,  and  the  person  infring- 
ing is  open  to  the  criticism  of  being  unbusiness-like  at 
least,  and  there  is  usually  a  small  extra  charge  to  pay. 

Should  one  desire  to  countermand  the  order  of  pay- 
ment on  a  check  after  it  is  issued  the  payment  can 
usually  be  prevented  by  notifying  the  bank  in  suffi- 
cient time. 

Stubs  are  the  inner  margin  of  a  check  book,  from 
which  the  checks  are  detached  as  used.  Upon  either 
these  or  the  inserted  pages  of  the  pocket  check  book 
data  should  be  recorded  concerning  the  check  which 
is  detached.  Space  is  given  for  noting  the  data,  num- 
ber of  the  check,  amount,  the  name  of  the  person  to 
whom  it  is  made  payable  and  that  for  which  it  is  given. 
These  facts  serve  as  guides  in  proving  the  vouchers 
when  returned  from  the  bank.  Properly  kept,  the 
stubs  -indicate  at  a  glance  the  amount  still  remaining 
in  the  bank. 


464 


THE  BANK  ACCOUNT 


From  the  preceding  facts  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
bank  may  be  made  as  valuable  aid  to  the  housewife  in 
conducting  her  business  as  {or  anyone  else  who  has 
exchanges  to  effect.  By  means  of  checks  money  may 


OATr.,90^-                DEPOS.TS,                       __  _  fa  „ 

£-6 

4.0 
.T 
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Y0 
6tf 
OU. 
QO 

•M(*J! 

/ 

\Jf<li^£&sL'<f 

s 

/^^/  &^-C 

r 

m£***L^**  *i 

j           7 

TOTAL  DEPOSIT*. 
«,„.,«,  <>..«.«  n.»w-    Mn*      4  1  -  3  >~ 

131 
31 

tftl 

r? 

BALANCE  FORWARD. 

11 

f-/ 

3.  A 


L* 


33, 


(Lu^L 


a 


V? 


S? 


THE  TWO  SIDES  OP  AN  INTERLEAVED  POCKET  CHECK  BOOK, 
FOUR  CHECKS  TO  A  LEAF. 

be  more  easily  and  safely  transferred  than  in  any  other 
way,  since  they  can  be  enclosed  in  letters,  if  necessary, 
and  they  avoid  the  danger  of  mistakes  in  "making 
change,"  or  of  loss  of  money.  Since  they  may  be 
made  payable  to  a  stated  person  only,  if  lost  they  are 
of  little  value  to  the  finder.  Even  if  lost  after  indorse- 


465 


66 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


Vouchers 

as 

Receipts 


Comparing 

Vouchers 

with  Stubs 


ment,  the  payment  may  be  withheld  by  notifying  the 
bank. 

A  check  eventually  becomes  all  the  receipt  necessary 
in  paying  bills,  thus  saving  any  further  trouble  of 
receipted  bills.  If  checks  are  used  entirely  in  pay- 
ments, the  vouchers  constitute  a  comparatively  com- 
plete household  account  in  themselves,  but  this  is 
rarely  feasible,  as  employees  find  checks  an  inconven- 
ient form  of  payment,  since  they  are  often  not  iden- 
tified so  that  they  can  get  them  cashed ;  besides,  checks 
are1  quite  unknown  to  them,  so  that  they  are  slow  in 
appreciating  them  as  money  equivalent,  and  their 
hours  are  such  as  not  to  conform  well  with  banking 
hours. 

The  pass  book  is  important  as  a  record  of  the 
depositor's  standing  at  the  bank.  That  this  record 
may  be  kept  accurately,  it  is  necessary  to  present  the 
book  with  each  deposit.  The  depositor  is  never  at 
liberty  to  make  entries  in  it  herself;  that  can  only  be 
done  by  the  receiving  teller.  The  pass  book  should 
be  presented  when  called  for  and  should  be  balanced 
as  often  as  once  a  month  if  a  considerable  business  is 
done  through  the  bank ;  even  if  the  pass  book  is  lost, 
the  money  may  still  be  drawn  out  at  will. 

Returned  vouchers  should  always  be  compared  care- 
fully with  their  stubs.  Should  there  be  any  discrep- 
ancy between  the  balance  as  given  by  the  bank  and 
that  shown  in  the  check  book,  one  should  determine 
whether  this  corresponds  exactly  with  the  amounts  of 
any  checks  issued,  but  not  returned. 


466 


THE  BANK  ACCOUNT  67 

Neither  check  nor  pass  book  need  affect  in  any  way 
the  household  account  book,  except  as  they  are  made 
to  be  valuable  aids.  They  form  a  very  convenient 
department  of  the  cash  drawer,  the  cash  in  hand  and 
cash  balance  in  the  bank  together  making  up  the  sum 
total  on  hand. 

In  some  cases  if  a  bank  account  is  properly  kept 
it  may  serve  as  a  fairly  complete  system  of  book- 


A  CHECK  WITH  STUB  ATTACHED. 

keeping  in  itself.  In  such  a  system  it  is  necessary  to 
deposit  all  money  received,  making  careful  record  on 
the  blank  sheets  of  the  check  book  of  the  date,  amount, 
source,  etc.  Then  all  bills  possible  should  be  paid  by 
check.  The  vouchers  are  a  receipt  in  themselves. 
These  returned  checks,  with  the  receipted  bills,  filed 
in  an  ordinary  25-cent  bill  file,  give  a  safeguard 
against  paying  the  same  bill  twice.  All  bills  should, 
of  course,  be  checked  up  before  being  paid.  The  stubs 
of  the  check  book  show  for  what  the  money  was 
spent — so  much  for  groceries,  so  much  for  the  butcher, 
for  gas,  milk,  rent,  dress  goods,  etc.  When  cash  is 


Bank 
Account 
Book- 
keeping 


467 


68 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


Better 
than 
None 


necessary,  as  in  paying  employees  or  small  incidentals, 
this  can  be  drawn  from  the  bank,  or  in  some  cases 
obtained  from  an  obliging  tradesman,  who  will 
exchange  cash  for  checks.  Memorandum  should  be 
made  on  the  stub  as  to  how  the  cash  drawn  is  expend- 
ed, or,  much  better,  a  petty  cash  account  can  be  kept  in 
a  book  or  on  cards.  At  stated  periods  a  summary  may 
be  made  from  the  stubs  and  from  the  receipted  bills 
as  to  how  the  money  has  been  expended. 

This  system  is  not  to  be  recommended  for  those 
who  should  look  after  the  pennies  carefully.  The  inci- 
dentals will  Jbe  found  to  foot  up  to  a  surprising 
amount  and  it  is  always  better  to  pay  cash  for  gro- 
ceries, meat,  etc.  However,  such  a  system  is  better 
than  none,  and  as  it  is  practically  automatic,  it  can  be 
followed  throughout  the  year  with  very  little  effort. 
The  poorest  system,  kept  accurately  from  year  to  year, 
is  better  than  the  most  perfect  system  kept  only  inter- 
mittently. 

in  a  family  which  is  properly  organized  financially 
there  is  a  definite  idea  as  to  how  the  income  shall  be 
divided.  A  certain  proportion  is  allowed  for  rent, 
food,  saving,  etc.,  as  already  indicated.  Then  each 
member  of  the  family  should  have  a  personal  allow- 
ance, to  include  definite  expenses,  of  which  a  personal 
account  is  kept.  As  soon  as  a  child  is  old  enough  to 
trust  with  5  or  10  cents  of  its  own  he  should  be  given 
such  allowance  regularly  and  taught  how  to  spend  as 
well  as  to  keep  account  of  expenditure.  Only  by 
experience  can  one  learn  how  to  spend  wisely. 


468 


HOUSEHOLD    MANAGEMENT 

PART     I 


Read  Carefully*  Place  your  name  and  address  on  the 
first  sheet  of  the  test.  Use  a  lig-ht  grade  of  paper  and  write 
on  one  side  of  the  sheet  only.  Leave  space  between  an- 
swers. Read  the  lesson  paper  a  number  of  times  before 
answering1  the  questions.  Answer  fully. 


1.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  terms  production 

and  consumption  in  economics  ? 

2.  Compare  their  relative  importance  in  Home  Eco- 

nomics at  the  present  time. 

3.  What  is  true  economy? 

4.  What  do  you  consider  valid  reasons  for  main- 

taining individual  homes  ? 

5.  (a)     What  do  you  understand  by  the  term  Stand- 

ard of  Life? 

(b)  How  are  you  conscious  of  such  a  guide  in 
your  own  life?  Have  you  been  conscious  of 
your  standard  changing  from  time  to  time  ? 

6.  What  value  do  you  see  in  a  Division  of  Income 

along  some  such  lines  as  are  indicated  in  the 
text? 

7.  Comment  upon  the  examples  of  both  Typical  and 

Ideal  Budgets  in  the  light  of  your  own  expe- 
rience. 


469 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

8.  What  do  you  consider  a  desirable  division  of  a 

salary  of  $1,500  a  year,  the  family,  occupation 
and  location  to  be  chosen  as  you  please  ?  Indi- 
cate clearly  and  fully  both  conditions  and  divi- 
sions. 

9.  Estimate  as  nearly  as  possible  the  division  of  the 

income  in  your  own  household  and  criticise. 

10.  Why  are  household  accounts  essential  ? 

11.  How   many  housekeepers   of  your   acquaintance 

keep  careful  household  accounts?  Do  you  dis- 
cover any  indications  of  greater  success  be- 
cause of  it  when  compared  with  those  who  do 
not? 

12.  What  system  of  account  keeping  do  you  find  most 

usable?    Give  details. 

13.  Explain  "Balancing  an  Account." 

14.  What  is  meant  by  "Indorsing  a  check?"     Illus- 

trate and  explain  value. 

15.  (a)     What    are    stubs?      How    valuable?     (b) 

What  are  vouchers? 

1 6.  In  what  lines  of  expenditure  does  there  seem  to 

be  especial  lack  of  thrift  at  the  present  time? 
Suggest  causes  and  corrections. 

17.  What  do  you  consider  the  chief  cause  of  the  in- 

creased distaste  for  housekeeping  among 
women  and  of  the  tendency  to  give  up  indi- 
vidual homes  in  favor  of  apartments?  How 
do  you  regard  the  change  ? 


470 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

1 8.  To   what   extent   have   any   subjects   which   you 

studied  during  your  school  life  been  directly 
and  practically  helpful  to  you  in  your  home- 
making  experience? 

19.  Is  there  any  additional  training  or  subject  which 

it  seems  to  you  might  be  profitably  added  to 
the  curricula  of  our  schools  or  colleges  for 
young  women? 

20.  Have  you  gained  any  new  or  helpful  suggestions 

for  the  more  successful  management  of  your 
home  as  a  result  of  this  study?  If  so,  what? 

21.  What  additional  suggestions   can   you  make  on 

any  of  the  topics  taken  up  in  this  paper  as  a 
result  of  your  experience  or  study  ? 

22.  Ask  two  or  more  questions  on  the  subjects  con- 

sidered in  this  lesson. 

Note.      After  completing  the  test  sign  your  full  name. 


471 


MY      SYMPHONY 

live  content  with  small 
means  CJ  to  seek  elegance 
rather   than    luxury,   and 
refinement  rather  than  fash- 
ion If  to  be  worthy  not 
respedable  flf  to  be  wealthy, 
not  rich  «I  to  study  hard, 
think  quietly,   talk  gently, 
ad:  frankly  jjf  to  listen  to  the 
Stars  and  birds,  babes  and 
sages,  with  open  heart  If  to 
bear  all  cheerfully  If  to  do 
all  bravely,  await  occasions, 
hurry  never  IJ  in  a  word, 
to  let  the  spiritual  unbidden 
and  unconscious,  grow  up 
through  the  common  Iff  this 
is    to    be   my    symphony. 

William    Ellery    Channing 


472 


HOUSEHOLD    MANAGEMENT 

PART  i;i 


ORGANIZATION  AND  DIVISION  OF  LABOR 

Few  things  in  life  are  more  pathetic  than  a  house-  order 
hold  in  which  no  organization  exists,  no  systematic 
direction  of  activities,  no  appreciation  of  Heaven's  first 
law,  order.  The  haphazard,  aimless  living  in  such 
homes  leaves  an  unmistakable  stamp  upon  the  inmates*. 
Without  knowing  it,  the  housewife  in  such  a  home 
suffers  infinitely  more  friction,  loss  of  time,  strength 
and  money  than  it  would  cost  her  to  keep  her  house- 
keeping better  in  hand. 

To  have  sufficient  system  and  organization  so  that  what 
one  knows  (i)  what  is  to  be  done,  (2)  who  is  to  who^ 
do  it,  and  (3)  when  is  it  to  be  done,  is  to  have  the 
chief  requisites  for  the  successful  working  out  of 
ideals,  coupled  with  ease  and  comfort  of  mind.  Apply- 
ing this  knowledge  each  day,  one  may  utilize  whatever 
time  is  at  her  disposal  for  other  enjoyments,  conscious 
that  she  is  not  thereby  neglecting  what  should  ever 
constitute  her  first  duty — the  care  of  her  home  and 
family.  It  makes  little  difference  whether  it  be  the 
mother  of  several  boys  with  limited  means  at  her 
command  or  the  woman  who  can  afford  to  hire  sev- 
eral helpers ;  there  is  keen  pleasure  and  satisfaction  for 

71 


473 


Requisites 


Brain  Power 


Knowledge 


Health 


72  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

all  in  work  so  carefully  divided  that  each  has  the 
gratification  of  knowing  the  importance  of  his  portion 
and  feels  a  commendable  pride  in  his  own  contribution 
toward  the  whole.  This  gratification  may  be  made 
as  real  for  the  helpers  as  for  the  one  for  whom  the 
work  is  performed.  The  joy  of  definite  duties  care- 
fully related  to  the  whole,  in  contrast  with  the  lifeless 
routine  of  ill-defined,  meaningless  details,  appeals  to 
the  one  as  truly  as  to  the  other. 

Each  thoughtful  housekeeper  finds  her  own  best 
methods  of  accomplishing  this  organization.  Some 
general  suggestions  as  to  necessary  equipments  may 
be  an  aid.  Certain  things  are  absolutely  essential  for 
success,  such  as  the  following: 

Brain  Pozver  with  Mental  Alertness  and  Activity. 
Method  is  impossible  to  one  unwilling  to  contribute 
these. 

A  Knowledge  as  to  how  to  perform  the  details  of 
housework  in  a  superior  manner.  Unless  one  under- 
stands what  is  necessary  in  the  preparation  of  a  certain 
dish,  or  the  length  of  time  it  ought  to  require  to  clean 
a  room  properly,  it  is  quite  impossible  to  direct  it  so 
that  the  requisite  amount  of  time  and  strength  shall 
be  expended  upon  it,  and  no  more. 

Health  plays  no  small  part.  Much  failure  has  poor 
physical  conditions  at  the  foundation.  No  truer 
criticism  has  been  made  of  American  women  in  gen- 
eral than  that  of  a  leader  in  the  study  of  home  prob- 
lems, when  she  affirms  that  too  many  are  content  to  be 


474 


ORGANIZATION 


73 


"just  able  to  be  about."  Home  is  the  place  where 
suffering  resulting  from  this  low  standard  is  certain 
to  be  most  keenly  felt.  Without  excellent  physical 
vitality,  the  cares  of  a  house  must,  perforce,  seem 
mountain-high.  The  exuberance  of  spirits  of  one  full 
of  life  and  energy  is  transmitted  like  an  electric  cur- 
rent to  all  who  come  in  contact  with  it,  and  inspiration, 
each  for  his  task,  is  the  inevitable  result.  Very  unfor- 
tunately, the  reverse  is  equally  true.  Failure  to 
possess  the  cheerfulness  and  optimism  born  of  per- 
fect health  creates  conditions  well  suited  to  spread  a 
contagion  of  a  very  depressing  nature.  Inability  on 
the  part  of  a  leader  to  do  his  share  is  soon  followed 
by  a  lessening  of  interest  on  the  part  of  the  helpers. 
A  dropping  off  of  punctual  and  hearty  performance 
of  duties  results. 

Self-control  is  another  necessity.  Ability  to  think 
coolly  and  calmly,  even  under  pressure,  and  to  plan 
carefully  and  intelligently  at  all  times,  goes  a  long 
way  in  directing  others.  This  characteristic  is  too 
often  thought  to  be  entirely  a  matter  of  temperament, 
beyond  individual  control.  It  is  a  great  mistake.  In- 
dividuals do  differ  in  a  marked  degree,  it  is  true,  in 
the  natural  possession  of  it;  nevertheless  with  good 
normal  conditions  of  health,  especially  of  "nerves," 
that  bane  of  woman's  existence,  this  virtue  is  as  possi- 
ble of  attainment  as  any  other  and  well  worth  a  strug- 
gle to  secure. 

A  large  Sympathy,  which  appreciates  the  difficulties 


Sympathy 


475 


74 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


Forethought 


Routine 


Written 
Notes 


encountered  in  doing  the  work,  proves  a  priceless  aid 
to  the  successful  superintendent. 

Forethought  is  an  important  requisite.  One  must 
have  in  mind  a  broad  survey  of  the  work  to  be  ac- 
complished. The  outline  of  at  least  a  week  at  a  time 
should  be  clearly  defined  to  oneself,  each  day  being 
assigned  its  special  work  in  addition  to  a  regular  rou- 
tine preserved  from  week  to  week.  In  this  scheme 
all  work  such  as  washing,  ironing,  sweeping,  cleaning 
and  the  like  will  find  a  place,  if  these  are  all  done  in 
the  home.  The  routine  should  not  be  infringed  upon, 
unless  extraordinary  emergencies  arise.  A  system 
broken  is  hard  to  restore,  and  something  is  sure  to  be 
crowded  out,  if  postponed.  Each  day's  work  should 
be  so  planned  that  the  menu  will  be  given  to  the  cook, 
it  one  is  employed,  at  least  the  day  before,  and  market- 
ing will  be  attended  to,  so  as  to  secure  early  and 
prompt  delivery  next  morning.  A  careful  mental,  or 
better,  written  note  should  be  made  of  all  details  liable 
to  escape  notice  at  the  proper  time.  This  avoids  a  con- 
fusion in  the  morning  of  being  needed  in  several  places 
at  once,  while  the  machinery  will  not  be  at  a  stand- 
still, waiting  to  be  set  in  motion  again.  It  avoids 
waste  of  time  at  a  very  valuable  part  of  the  day.  The 
early  hours  count  for  much  in  starting  the  work  so 
that  tiring  haste  and  over-pressure  may  be  prevented 
later.  If  helpers  know,  when  they  arise,  what  the 
day's  work  is  to  include,  they  can  plan  to  far  greater 
advantage,  saving  time  and  strength.  Written  orders 
are  a  great  help  here. 


476 


ORGANIZATION  75 

Adaptability  of  means  to  ends  is  a  thing  that  the 
would-be  organizer  may  well  study  in  successful  busi- 
ness men.  A  business  man's  office  is  so  arranged  that 
it  is  to  the  highest  degree  labor  and  time-saving.  It  is 
compact,  orderly,  simple,  with  nothing  unnecessary 
rilling  space.  Every  thing  is  at  hand  and  adapted  to 
make  his  work  swift  and  easy.  The  successful  work- 
man's tools  are  good  in  quality,  in  perfect  order,  and 
so  arranged  that  every  motion  counts.  He  knows  that 
it  is  economy  to  have  them  so.  How  many  of  our 
kitchens  would  stand  the  test  satisfactorily  in  these 
particulars?  Most  kitchens,  pantries  and  laundries 
are  so  arranged  that  there  is  a  prodigal  waste  of  time 
and  strength  in  passing  from  one  thing  to  another. 
One  should  see  to  it  that  the  cooking  table  is  not  on 
the  side  of  the  kitchen  opposite  the  pantry  of  supplies 
or  cooking  utensils,  and  both  as  far  as  possible  from 
the  stove.  A  little  trouble  and  perhaps  no  expense 
will  often  better  conditions. 

It  would  seem  far  more  ideal  a  condition  than  has 
yet  been  reached  were  it  possible  to  give  certain  fixed 
standards  for  the  division  of  the  work  of  a  house  so 
that  helpers  going  from  one  to  another  would  find 
practically  the  same  duties  expected  of  them.  To  at- 
tempt such  outline,  would  be  too  hazardous  to  under- 
take. Were  housewives  who  employ,  asked  to  define 
the  duties  of  "second  girl,"  "nursery  maid,"  or  even 
of  laundress  or  cook,  hardly  two  would  be  found  to 
agree,  so  individual  has  been  the  assignment  according 
to  the  particular  needs  of  each  household.  One  ex- 


477 


Diversity  of 
Requirement 


Study 
the  Only 
Solution 


The  Right 
to  Servants 


;6  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

pects  assistance  in  one  line  of  work,  another  in  another. 
In  one  house  the  housewife  rarely  appears,  gives  no 
assistance  and  maintains  the  most  formal  relations 
with  those  employed.  In  another  she  prefers  to  direct 
minutely  and  to  assist  in  the  performance  of  portions 
of  the  work,  attempting  at  the  same  time  to  make  her 
helpers  feel  a  home-like  enjoyment  of  what  she  is 
able  to  provide  them.  Such  diversity  renders  it  im- 
possible to  arrive  at  any  general  plan  or  division  for 
each  helper  which  shall  be  adapted  to  meet  the  needs 
of  all  who  employ. 

Even  in  homes  where  several  are  employed  some- 
thing of  the  same  irregularity  is  found.  A  "second 
girl"  at  one  place  is  expected  to  look  after  the  door- 
bell, wait  on  table  and  do  nursery  work.  Perhaps 
with  her  first  change  of  place  she  is  asked  to  assist  the 
cook  by  preparing  vegetables  and  does  laundry  work. 

The  best  guide  at  present  is  a  patient,  thoughtful 
study  of  the  problems  of  one's  own  house  until  as 
equitable  and  consistent  division  is  attained  as  can  be 
made,  meanwhile  praying  for  speedy  release  from  a 
condition  so  unsystematic  and  chaotic  as  that  of  the 
present  time,  and  resolutely  setting  one's  face  toward 
the  ultimate  solution  of  some,  at  least,  of  the  diffi- 
culties through  better  adaptation  of  household  manage- 
ment to  the  demands  of  the  age. 

A  woman  has  no  right  to  a  servant  until  she  knows 
the  value  of  time  and  strength  in  relation  to  the  work 
to  be  done.  She  cannot  understand  her  servant's  prob- 
lems until  she  understands  a  servant's  duties. 


478 


DOMESTIC  SERVICE 

Even  the  most  fortunate  housekeeper  recognizes  in 
the  present  situation  of  domestic  service  a  state  of 
affairs  sadly  chaotic,  perplexing  and  deplorable. 
Merely  to  cry  out  against  it  is  futile  and  would  be  but 
adding  to  an  already  long  list  of  complaints.  The 
following  pages  are  intended  rather  as  an  Indicator  of 
some  indisputable  facts,  to  be  recognized  and  dealt  with 
by  would-be  successful  employers. 

Domestic  service  in  the  United  States  has  passed 
through  great  changes  in  the  last  fifty  years.  Condi- 
tions, in  some  respects,  were  never  like  those  in  any 
.other  country.  Until  within  a  few  years  in  New  Eng- 
land and  the  Northwest  whatever  assistance  was 
needed  in  performing  the  work  of  the  household  beyond 
that  rendered  by  the  members  of  the  family  was 
secured  by  employing  a  neighbor's  wife  or  daughter, 
who  shared  in  all  particulars  the  interests  and  privi- 
leges of  the  family  in  which  she  was  employed.  She 
was  recognized  in  every  way  as  an  equal,  sitting  at  the 
family  table,  sharing  the  common  sitting  room,  often 
marrying  into  the  family.  While  this  continues  to  be 
true  to  a  slight  extent  in  rural  districts  to-day,  there 
has  been,  generally  speaking,  an  entire  change,  the 
present  being  a  period  of  transition  and  reconstruction. 
The  two  factors  which  have  had  the  greatest  influence 
upon  the  domestic  situation  are  immigration  and  the 
changes  in  the  industrial  system. 

77 


Changes 


479 


Influence  of 
Immigration 


Rural 
Supply 


Industrial 
Changes 


78  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

The  influence  of  immigration  upon  domestic  service 
has  been  more  or  less  similar  to  its  influence  upon 
occupations  for  men.  As  the  unskilled  labor  of  the 
ignorant  immigrant  has  entered  into  competition  with 
the  labor  of  the  more  skilled  and  intelligent  native 
workers  the  native  employes  have  progressed,  pushing 
up  and  out  into  lines  of  work  which  have  been  deemed 
higher,  more  lucrative,  pleasanter.  This  has  happened 
in  domestic  service  until  very  few  native  Americans 
can  be  secured  for  housework  at  the  present  time. 

Rural  districts  have  suffered  a  surprising  falling  off 
in  supply  due  to  this  change,  as  the  immigrants  tend 
to  congregate  in  the  large  cities,  especially  those  who 
come  to  us  from  the  countries  of  the  principal  supply  of 
domestics — Ireland,  Germany,  Sweden,  Canada  and 
Newfoundland — and  the  country  girl  has  learned  to 
seek  the  city  also. 

Manufacturing  industries  have  a  large  influence  in 
determining  the  number  of  women  engaged  in  domestic 
service  in  any  city  or  community,  as  they  seem  to  prove 
more  attractive  than  housework  at  the  present  time. 
Whenever  there  is  competition  with  other  kinds  of 
employment  housework  is  inevitably  the  lesser  attrac- 
tion. It  is  done,  if  at  all,  only  when  there  is  no  other 
alternative;  a  last  resort  rather  than  a  choice.  It  is 
not  surprising,  in  the  light  of  these  facts,  that  the  kind 
of  service  rendered  by  those  who  are  engaged  in  it  is 
not  as  satisfactory  as  it  should  be  and  that  the  stand- 
ards in  the  service  are  very  low,  with  little  apparent 


480 


DOMESTIC  SERVICE  79 

spirit  of  emulation  or  progress.  Let  us  consider  the 
leading  elements  in  the  problem  from  the  point  of  view 
of  both  employer  and  employee,  seeking  to  ascertain 
the  real  and  alleged  causes  of  this  marked  preference 
on  the  part  of  employees,  and  if  there  are  any  remedies 
which  may  be  applied  to  the  immediate  relief  of  the 
situation. 

If   we  turn   to   consider,   first,   the   advantages   of      Advantages 
domestic  service  over  other  forms  of  labor  open  to      service68* 
women  of  the  class  thus  employed,  there  are  several 
decidedly    advantageous    conditions    peculiar    to    the 
work.    The  conditions  for  preserving  good  health  are 
superior  to  those  in  almost  any  other  occupation.    The 
work  is  normal,  with  greater  variety,  better  provision    * 
of  light  and  pure  air  and  more  consideration  in  rase 
of  temporary  illness.     Steady  employment  is  afforded 
in  work  for  the  most  part  congenial  to  those  who  have 
any  understanding  of  it.    In  spite  of  much  said  to  the 
contrary  concerning  irregularity  of  hours,  there  is  less 
rigid  confinement  than  in  most  occupations. 

It  affords  more  home  life  than  other  kinds  of  work,  Home 
although  this  is  in  the  home  of  the  employer  and  is  not 
considered  as  home  life  by  the  employee.  The  degree 
in  which  the  employee  is  allowed  or  made  to  feel  this 
differs  greatly,  as  all  know,  with  employers  and,  to 
a  certain  extent,  the  number  of  employees.  That 
there  is  far  less  difficulty  where  there  are  many  em- 
ployees is  shown  in  the  fact  that  the  majority  of  state 
institutions  have  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  help  of  all 


481 


8o 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


kinds.  Even  insane  asylums,  where  the  work  is  very 
hard,  can  actually  make  a  choice  of  applicants  for 
housework  instead  of  having  to  seek  for  them.  Even 
tinder  the  worst  circumstances  a  certain  sense  of  pro- 
tection and  comfort  is  offered  in  connection  with  the 
work,  and  at  its  best  the  comforts  and  positive  luxuries 
which  surround  the  maids  far  exceeds  those  they  could 
have  in  their  own  homes. 

In  spite  of  these  important  advantages,  the  work  is 
most  universally  unpopular.  All  are  familiar  with  the 
reasons  offered  for  this.  Irregularity  of  hours  is  a 
point  frequently  urged.  It  is  true  that  the  hours  of 
labor  are  so  loosely  defined  in  most  households  that 
employees  have  little  sense  of  having  completed  the 
work  of  the  day.  This  is  true  to  some  extent  in  well- 
regulated  households  on  account  of  the  nature  of  the 
work.  Lack  of  system  and  care  in  this  respect  too 
often  unduly  increases  the  irregularity  and  makes  what 
might  be  a  reasonable  amount  of  work  unreasonably 
heavy. 

It  is  also  true  that  the  employee,  although  nominally 
in  the  family,  is  in  no  sense  a  part  of  it.  This  is  a 
position  infinitely  lonelier  than  to  be  outside  it  alto- 
gether. Very  few  employes  feel  free  to  receive  or 
entertain  personal  friends  in  a  manner  natural  or 
pleasant  to  them,  nor  are  they  expected  to  do  so. 
Attempts  to  secure  personal  improvement  or  pleasure 
are  perhaps  ridiculed.  This  is  probably  not  inten- 
tional on  the  part  of  the  employer,  but  seems  to  be  the 


482 


DOMESTIC  SERVICE 


81 


result  of  failure  to  appreciate  the  needs  of  the 
employees  or  to  provide  suitably  for  meeting  them. 

Opportunities  for  promotion  and  advancement, 
which  play  a  very  important  part  in  stimulating  to 
effort  in  other  employments,  are  almost  wholly  lacking 
in  the  present  methods  of  conducting  domestic  service. 
The  most  that  can  be  hoped  for  through  a  change  is 
an  easier  place,  a  slight  increase  in  wages,  a  pleasanter 
employer  or  some  trival  gain.  The  wrork  is  so  ungraded 
that  the  unskilled,  inefficient  worker  receives  practically 
the  same  wages  as  the  skilled  and  capable. 

Disparity  in  wages  is  sometimes  offered  as  a  reason 
for  the  choice  of  other  work,  but  this  is  readily  proved 
to.  be  invalid.  A  comparison  with  the  pay  in  any 
other  form  of  employment  would  be  favorable  for  the 
wages  of  the  domestic  employee  at  the  present  time. 
Wages  differ  greatly  in  different  sections,  vet  they 
bear  sufficiently  close  relation  to  other  expenses  so 
that  general  comparisons  may  be  made.  Miss  Salmon 
in  her  admirable  work  on  Domestic  Service  makes  the 
comparison  between  the  average  wages  received  by 
the  domestic  employee  and  the  school  teacher.  In  this 
she  clearly  shows  that,  considering  the  fewer  demands 
made  upon  the  domestic  employee  in  maintaining  her 
position  in  contrast  with  those  made  upon  a  teacher, 
and  also  the  many  aids  and  comforts  which  are  not 
easily  measured  in  full  money  values,  such  as  board, 
lodging,  laundry  and  the  like,  the  average  wages  of  the 
domestic  employee  is  higher  by  a  generous  margin. 


Wagec 


483 


Social 
Stigma 


Employer's 
Standpoint 


82  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

The  average  salary  of  women  teachers  is  $545  a  year ; 
$260  must  be  deducted  for  board  and  lodp-inp-  and  $25 
for  laundry.  There  is  left  $260  with  which  she  must 
meet  such  necessary  expenses  as  clothing,  traveling, 
social  obligations  and  working  capital,  as  books,  etc. 
If  one  considers  in  addition,  as  is  certainly  legitimate, 
the  necessary  outlay  for  training  in  the  one  case,  in 
contrast  with  the  low  requirements  in  the  other,  it 
becomes  very  apparent  that  one  must  look  elsewhere 
for  an  explanation  of  the  great  popularity  of  the  one 
form  of  service  and  the  unpopularity  of  the  other. 

There  remains  a  final  objection,  which  is  in  reality 
first  in  importance  and  which  has  more  to  do  with 
keeping  desirable  helpers  from  choosing  this  kind  of 
employment  than  any  other.  It  is  the  reason  invariably, 
given  first  by  those  who  express  their  feeling  frankly 
and  unreservedly.  This  is  the  social  disadvantage 
experienced  by  those  who  engage  in  such  service.  This 
stigma  is  subtle,  but  very  real  in  its  resultant  evils.  It 
takes  its  rise  in  the  false  attitude  of  many  employers 
toward  housework,  and  the  utterly  false  idea  of  what 
equality  in  this  free  American  country  really  means 
by  those  whose  limitations  of  ignorance  or  opportunity 
have  led  them  to  take  a  wrong  view  of  the  entire 
matter. 

When  we  turn  to  the  employer's  point  of  view  there 
is  much  to  be  said  considering:  the  unsatisfactory  situa- 
tion. Taking  the  present-day  employee  into  the  home 
is  attempting  to  introduce  into  the  life  there  one  who 
is  of  different  nationality  and  who  has  little  in  common 


484 


DOMESTIC  SERVICE  83 

with  the  other  members  of  the  family  from  any  point 
of  view.  Inheritance,  former  environment  and  experi- 
ences could  hardly  be  more  unlike  in  the  majority  of 
cases.  There  can  be  little  expectation  of  accomplish- 
ing or  even  approximating  perfect  assimilation. 

As  there  is  no  opportunity,  in  the  majority  of  house- 
holds, to  rise  in  this  employment,  the  desire  for  change 
or  betterment  finds  lively  expression  and  diversion 
through  new  places.  As  a  result  the  employer  is  put 
to  her  wit's  end  to  cope  with  this  tendency,  and  is 
often  exasperated,  and  rightly,  by  her  neighbor,  who 
resorts  to  illegitimate  means  of  influence  by  over- 
paying, and  who  ignores  the  fact  that  she  is  thereby 
only  multiplying  the  difficulties.  Much  selfishness  is 
revealed  in  the  methods  employed  bv  harassed  employ- 
ers, who  are  often  placed  in  so  hard  a  position  that  it 
becomes  a  supreme  test  of  character  to  decide  what  to 
do  to  secure  and  keep  the  needed  help.  The  majority 
of  employees  are  astonishingly  oblivious  to  real  present 
opportunities,  so  eagerly  do  they  grasp  after  vague 
advantages  through  change.  As  a  result,  the  average 
length  of  service  in  one  place  is  less  than  one  and  a 
half  years  in  cities,  and  in  towns  where  the  desire 
to  go  to  the  cities  is  strong  it  is  still  shorter. 

The  ignorance  of  the  average  employee  of  the 
present  time  is  profound  and  very  exasperating,  the 
more  difficult  to  cope  with  because  of  the  assumed 
intelligence  in  most  cases.  The  perplexities  and  trials 
of  being  forced  to  employ  untrained  helpers  for  work 


Irresponsi- 
bility 


Ignorance 


485 


Summary 


Time 
Off 


84  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

which  requires  skilled  labor  can  hardly  be  exagger- 
ated. That  more  of  this  crudeness  is  to  be  found  in 
this  line  of  work  than  in  any  other  is  indisputable.  It 
is  accounted  for  partly  in  the  present  failure  to  show 
appreciation  of  good  work  or  to  properly  reward  it. 
This  is  one  of  the  greatest  menaces  to  satisfactory 
service. 

These,  then,  are  the  objections  to  household  service: 
It  provides  no  real  social  life;  it  takes  the  worker 
from  her  own  home  and  places  her  where,  however 
comfortable  she  may  be,  she  is  an  alien,  often  losing 
caste  among  her  friends,  hence  having  no  social  place ; 
it  offers  no  incentive  to  rise,  no  spur  to  ambition, 
except  that  of  personal  pride  or  desire  to  please,  and 
this,  if  not  lacking  in  the  first  place,  may  cease,  because 
there  is  no  real  competition. 

Also,  it  should  be  stated  that  all  places  are  not  com- 
fortable ;  a  cold,  cheerless,  illy  furnished  room  cannot 
seem  a  rest  or  refuge  after  a  hard  day's  work.  Work 
over  a  hot  stove,  however  neatly  done,  certainly  does 
seem  to  demand  for  the  person  engaged  in  it  proper 
hot  water  bathing  facilities. 

Fresh  air  is  an  essential  to  happy,  healthy  living. 
One  afternoon  weekly  cannot  enable  the  maid  to  store 
away  sufficient  fresh  air  to  keep  her  through  the  fol- 
lowing six  days. 

Simply  from  the  selfish  standpoint,  that  of  getting 
the  best  work  from  the  machine,  reasonable  fore- 
thought should  be  given,  not  only  for  the  comfort,  but 


486 


DOMESTIC  SERVICE  85 

for  the  personal  freedom  of  the  employee.  This 
means  that  if  the  best  work  is  expected  from  the 
worker  an  endeavor  should  be  made  to  keep  her  in 
the  best  physical  condition  for  that  work.  When  the 
prescribed  work  is  finished  it  is  normal  for  anyone  to 
desire  to  get  out  and  away  from  the  place  in  which 
she  has  been  working.  If  a  maid's  sitting  room  were 
or  could  be  a  part  of  every  house  there  would  not  be 
the  temptation  to  seek  the  street  or  a  friend's  kitchen 
for  rest  and  recreation.  This  sitting  room  is  often  an 
entire  impossibility ;  it  is  frequently  considered  in  that 
light  because  it  entails  a  sacrifice  of  space  or  some 
expense.  There  is  far  too  frequently  an  utter  disregard 
of  the  actual  condition  of  what  may  be  termed  the 
rolling  stock  of  this  business.  It  is  economy  to  keep 
the  machine  well  oiled,  well  repaired  and  well  housed. 

Pleasant  surroundings  do  much  to  lighten  labor 
and  make  it  attractive,  whatever  kind  of  work  it  may 
be.  This  'fact  large  manufacturers  and  merchants 
have  recognized  and  utilized  to  their  great  advantage. 
The  housekeeper  may  learn  the  same  lesson,  and  a 
maids'  sitting  room  may  become  the  rule  rather  than 
the  exception. 

Reasonable  forethought  entails  a  recognition  of  the 
fact  that  as  there  are  now  few  standards  of  work  or 
methods  of  doing  it,  so  that  the  new  cook  or  maid,  no 
matter  how  well  recommended  or  even  equipped,  has 
no  idea  of  how  you  desire  your  work  done  or  how  you 
wish  it  systematized.  Proper  and  sufficient  directions 


Pleasant 
Surroundings 


Standards 
of  Work 


487 


86 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


Written 
Directions 


Daily 
Outlines 


should  be  given  and  proper  care  that  they  should 
not  be  presented  in  a  confused  manner  all  at  once. 
Perhaps  they  can  be  given  best  in  writing,  a  type- 
written sheet  placed  in  the  kitchen  or  some  suitable 
place  and  used  for  reference.  To  this  can  be  attached 
the  special  direction  for  the  following  day  each  night 
or  afternoon,  and  the  chances  are  this  plan  will  aid 
very  materially  in  the  smooth  running  of  the  ma- 
chinery of  the  household.  Such  a  plan  need  not  be  in 
too  great  detail,  unless  the  maid  be  very  untrained. 
Miss  Parloa  suggests  such  a  daily  outline  in  her 
work  on  Home  Economics,  as  follows : 

1.  Make  the  fires,  air  the  dining  room  and  hall. 

2.  Prepare  the  breakfast  and  set  the  table. 

3.  Put  the  bedrooms  to  air  while  the  family  is  at 
breakfast. 

4.  Remove  the  breakfast  dishes ;  put  away  the  food. 
Sort  the  dishes  and  put  to  soak  all  dishes  and  utensils 
that  have  had  food  in  them  which  is  liable  to  stick. 

5.  Put  dining  room  and  sitting  room  in  order,  airing 
them  well. 

6.  Wash  dishes,  put  kitchen  and  pantries  in  order. 
Prepare  dishes  that  require  slow  cooking  and  put  them 
to  cook. 

7.  Make  beds  and  put  sleeping  rooms  and  bathroom 
in  order. 

8.  Trim  lamps. 

9.  Dust  halls  and  stairs ;   sweep  piazzas. 

This  plan  is  for  a  maid  of  all  work,  and  naturally 
would  be  varied  in  many  households,  but  indicates  the 


488 


DOMESTIC  SERVICE  87 

idea.     The  more  definite  the  work  can  be  made,  the 
better. 

Personal  freedom  for  the  maid  means  about  what  Personal 
it  does  for  the  mistress ;  freedom  to  choose  and  have  Freedom 
her  own  friends,  to  have  them  call  and  visit  with  her; 
to  receive  them  without  unnecessary  and  seemingly 
impertinent  interruption  or  surveillance;  freedom  to 
come  and  go  within  reasonable  limits  without  asking 
permission  or  giving  explanation  each  time.  In  short, 
it  is  an  application  of  the  Golden  Rule,  and  means 
such  treatment  as  will  insure  the  respect,  if  not  the 
liking,  of  employee  for  the  employer.  This  may  seem 
revolutionary,  actually  impossible  to  many,  and  prob- 
ably is  where  there  is  a  succession  of  unknown,  un- 
tried, unreferenced  maids  passing  through  the  kitchen 
every  four  to  six  weeks.  This  plan,  however,  has 
been  tried  with  success  in  many  places. 

In  a  small  city  in  Northern  New  York,  where  the  A  Case 
majority  of  people  are  in  the  maelstrom  of  the  domestic 
situation,  there  is  a  family  that  secures  help  readily 
and  whose  maids  remain  with  them  until  a  proper  rea- 
son, such  as  marrying,  causes  a  change.  The  em- 
ployer in  this  case  considers  that  she  employs  the  maids 
to  do  the  work,  not  simply  to  be  in  the  house.  When 
the  work  is  finished  the  maids  are  at  liberty.  If  two 
are  in  the  house,  one  is  expected  to  be  ready  to  answer 
the  bell ;  if  one  only  is  employed,  there  never  has  been 
trouble  or  even  necessity  of  making  any  rule  about 
this  mooted  point.  This  housekeeper  has  argued  that 


489 


88  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

in  general  she  would  prefer  to  answer  her  own  door 
bell  and  have  the  real  work  cheerfully,  faithfully  and 
well  done,  and  that  to  get  out  of  doors  undoubtedly 
would  be  better  for  maid  and  work  than  staying  in 
would  be.  This  mistress  has  provided  her  maids  with 
suitable  reading  matter  for  their  leisure  time,  and 
shows  that  she  is  interested  in  the  outside  life  of  the 
girls  without  unduly  interfering  with  it.  In  conse- 
quence she  has  good  service,  the  maids  are  well  and 
happy,  and  so  is  she,  for  friction  is  almost  unknown 
in  the  running  machinery  of  that  home.  Perhaps  this 
should  be  noted,  that  in  general  the  mistress  does  not 
have  to  answer  the  door  bell,  and  many  little  thought- 
ful services  are  performed  for  her  not  nominated  in 
the  bond. 

The  real  question  is  not  the  "reason  for  the  dearth 
cf  good  household  workers,  but  what  suggestions  may 
be  made  to  assist  the  housewife  in  this  trying  situation. 

In  its  ultimate  effects  the  domestic  situation  of 
to-day  will  probably  bring  about  a  reorganization  of 
the  home.  This  is  to  be  hoped  and  desired,  if  that 
t~c  organization  means  raising  the  work  of  the  home 
to  its  proper  position  as  a  recognized  business  affair, 
whose  director  is  required  to  have  a  krjowlccg?  and 
skill  somewhat  commensurate  with  the  issues  at  stake, 
the  interests  involved.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  that 
the  director  of  the  home  should  know  and  be  trained 
for  her  business  if  she  is  to  demand  and  obtain  skill 
and  training  in  those  she  directs.  The  recognition  of 
this  need  is  the  first  great  step  toward  reform. 


490 


DOMESTIC  SERVICE  £9 

The  second  is  the  acknowledgment  of  the  fact  that 
in  general  the  housekeeping  of  to-day  is  run  on  an 
antiquated  plan,  one  not  even  fulfilling  the  needs  of 
an  earlier  generation  and  entirely  inadequate  to  cope 
writh  the  tendencies  of  to-day.  The  plan  has  to  be 
changed.  No  progress  will  be  made  if  women  spend 
their  time  in  bewailing  the  present  condition  only ;  we 
must  put  our  wits  to  work  to  better  it. 

These,  then,  are  suggestions :  First,  that  there 
should  be  more  universal  effort  made,  particularly 
in  communities  where  clubs  discuss  these  things, 
to  secure  certain  just  standards  of  work  to  be  done 
for  a  certain  just  wage.  The  work  of  each  household 
should  not  vary  between  unknown  limits  and  the 
wages  still  be  the  same  in  each. 

Co-operation  in  establishing  standards  of  work  is 
much  needed.  Why  should  the  cook  who  prepares 
three  elaborate  meals  daily  for  a  family  of  six  adults, 
who  often  entertain,  be  paid  the  same  wages  as  the 
cook  next  door,  who  prepares  simple  meals  for  three 
people  who  live  most  quietly  and  rarely  have  a  guest? 
Workers  in  factories  and  stores  at  least  are  governed 
by  the  same  number  of  hours.  Just  as  the  life,  num- 
bers and  demands  of  different  families  vary,  so  does 
the  work  vary.  A  standard  of  wage  cannot  be  estab- 
lished without  a  corresponding  standard  of  work. 

Secondly,  that  housekeepers  should  bring  themselves 
to  a  willingness  to  adopt  the  hour  plan,  the  worker 
coming  in,  and  work  being  done  and  paid  for  by  the 


Establish 
Standards 


Work  by 
the  Hour 


491 


Expense 

of  the 

Hour 

Flan 


An 

Actual 
Experience 


90  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

hour  according  to  kind  or  skill  involved   in  accom- 
plishing it. 

The  immediate  objections  to  this  plan  are,  first,  its 
expense,  and  then  the  seeming  strain  upon  the  house- 
keeper, who  must  either  piece  out  or  piece  together 
this  patchwork  scheme.  Then  arises  the  question: 
"Where  shall  we  get  the  workers  ?"  for  in  many  places 
this  is  a  problem. 

As  to  expense,  in  only  a  few  cases  has  it  been  com- 
pared, hence  there  is  a  lack  of  sufficient  data.  In 
general  it  may  be  computed  in  this  way:  Take  first 
into  account  the  wages  of  the  maid  or  maids,  add 
board  and  what  may  be  called  room  rent,  including 
light,  etc.,  used.  One  family  living  in  the  West  has 
carefully  kept  account  of  the  expenses  with  and  with- 
out a  maid  and  have  concluded  that  in  general  a  maid 
of  all  work  costs  $5  a  week  above  her  wages.  This  is 
higher  than  Mrs.  Abel's  estimates,  which  were  based 
on  the  actual  experience  of  a  family  of  seven. 

The  family  lived  in  a  small  town  in  New  York,  and 
consisted  of  five  men  and  boys  and  two  women.  These 
estimates  are  the  comparison  of  two  successive  sum- 
mers. In  both  cases  the  laundry  was  done  outside, 
hence  has  no  place  in  the  comparison. 
First  Summer. 

Wages  of  maid  per  week $3«oo 

Board  per  week 2.50 

Rent  of  bedroom 50 

$6.00 


492 


DOMESTIC  SERVICE  gi 

The  exact  amount  of  room  rent  could  be  known,  as 
the  house  was  too  small  for  the  maid  and  a  room  was 
rented  outside  for  her. 

Second  Summer. 
(Work  done  by  the  hour.) 

Dishwashing,  two  and  a  half  hours  for  six  days 

(fifteen  hours) $1.50 

Cleaning  ( 15  hours) 1.50 

Dinner  service,  three  hours  for  six  days  (eigh- 
teen hours) 1. 80 

Sunday  dinners  at  hotel,  seven,  at  25  cents  (less 
estimated  cost  of  food  material) 88 


$5.68 

From  these  and  other  data  it  might  be  determined 
that  in  general  a  maid  costs  her  wages ;  that  is,  if  paid 
$5.00  a  week,  the  conditions  are  such  that  the  probable 
cost  for  her  board  and  lodging  is  $5.00  also ;  if  paid 
$3.00,  it  cost  another  like  amount  for  her  "keep." 

In  Chicago  so  many  of  the  very  good  apartment 
houses  are  constructed  without  accommodation  for 
maids  that  the  hour  plan  is  popular.  The  general  con- 
census of  opinion  is  that  the  hour  plan  is  less,  not 
more,  expensive,  and  has  advantages  not  reckoned  in 
dollars  and  cents.  By  those  who  have  tried  it  the 
advantages  of  the  hour  system  are  stated  to  be  that 
the  work  is  in  general  better  and  more  rapidly  done; 
there  is  not  such  waste  of  material,  and  that  the  free- 
dom from  the  responsibility  and  presence  of  an  actual 


493 


Where  to 

Obtain 

Workers 


Natural 
Progress 


92  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

alien  in  the  house,  especially  in  an  apartment,  is  incal- 
culable. 

The  question  of  where  to  get  these  workers  remains 
to  be  solved.  That  is  a  very  individual  one,  belonging 
to  the  conditions  of  each  city  or  town.  As  club  women 
take  this  up,  bureaus  such  as  the  Household  Aids 
Company  of  Boston  will  be  established,  and  even  now 
from  guilds  and  industrial  unions,  often  from  bureaus 
of  charity,  such  workers  are  easily  obtainable. 

One  young  woman  in  Brooklyn,  after  desperate 
times  with  incompetent  help,  advertised  for  a  married 
woman  with  children  who  could  leave  her  home  for  a 
certain  number  of  hours  a  day.  She  obtained  a  refined 
woman  in  reduced  circumstances,  untrained  for  any 
definite  work,  whose  experience  made  her  of  the  great- 
est assistance.  She  goes  to  the  house  for  a  stated 
number  of  hours  each  day  to  care  for  the  babies,  while 
the  mother  performs  her  social  duties.  This  mother 
does  her  own  cooking,  having  the  dishwashing  done 
by  the  hour.  The  expense  is  lessened,  her  home  is 
charming,  she  feels  she  is  leaving  the  children  in  safe, 
"grammatical,"  understanding  hands,  and  she  has 
leisure  for  profit  and  pleasure,  for  the  higher  life, 
which  she  says  she  never  had  in  the  old  plan,  even 
with  a  smaller  family. 

We  must  realize  that  natural,  industrial  progress 
has  taken  one  by  one  from  the  home  the  occupations 
formerly  carried  on  there,  until  housekeeping  no 
longer  means  the  making  of  many  things,  but  the 
proper  expending  of  money  for  things  already  made. 


494 


DOMESTIC  SERVICE  93 

We  should  not  resist  this  tendency,  but  recognize  and 
fit  into  it. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  sanctity  of  the  home 
is  not  preserved  by  the  industries  carried  on  there.  To 
preserve  one  home  at  the  expense  of  several  others  is 
neither  economic  nor  ethical.  When  clubwomen  talk 
about  the  sanctity  of  the  home  they  should  ask  the 
question,  ''Whose  home  ?"  B 

Mrs.  Mary  Hinman  Abel,  who  is  a  close  student 
and  a  wise  observer  of  economic  conditions  as  they 
affect  the  home,  says  that  the  solution  of  present 
troubles  must  come  in  part  from  reducing  the  kinds  of 
work  done  in  the  home.  This  is  along  the  line  of 
industrial  progress  as  well  as  that  of  the  least  resist- 
ance in  this  case. 

The  laundry  is  disappearing  from  the  house,  follow- 
ing soap  and  candle  making.  True,  there  are  many 
more  poor  laundries  than  good  ones,  but  that  there 
are  good  ones,  and  that  these  have  been  run  with  a 
profit,  proves  there  can  and  should  be  more. 

The  establishment  of  laundries  is  one  step,  and  a 
perfectly  possible  one.  A  well-educated  Southern 
woman,  after  taking  a  course  in  household  science  at 
a  Northern  institution,  started  a  laundry  in  a  Northern 
city.  The  work  was  entirely  done  by  hand  and  a  fair 
price  charged  for  it.  She  supervised  the  work  and 
employed  competent  people  to  do  it.  It  paid  well  in 
every  sense  for  both  owner  and  patrons.  When  cir- 
cumstances forced  her  to  lay  aside  the  work  her 
customers  were  as  homeless  people ;  they  had  no  other 


Sanctity 
of  the 
Home 


Establishment 
of  Laundries 


495 


94 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


Good 

Employment 
Agencies 


The 
Future 


place  to  go.  What  one  woman  has  done  other  women 
can  do,  and  it  should  be  emphasized  that  this  woman 
was  well  born,  delicately  brought  up,  educated  and  a 
Southerner,  with  the  inevitable  shrinking  from  labor 
outside  that  such  a  bringing  up  entails.  She  says  that 
her  patrons  became  her  friends,  that  work  she  took 
up  with  shrinking  became  really  delightful,  simply 
because  it  was  well  done. 

Another  step  is  the  establishment  of  more  properly 
run  employment  agencies.  Too  many  cases  are  known 
of  employment  agencies  that  encourage  their  maids  to 
change  often,  to  the  end  that  they  may  gain  additional 
fees.  Employment  agencies  where  references  are 
required  and  looked  up,  where  the  maid  is  actually 
investigated  and  known  as  well  as  the  housekeeper, 
where  honesty  is  considered  not  only  the  best  but  the 
only  policy  are  not  castles  in  Spain.  They  can  be 
established,  supported  and  run  by  women  and  women's 
clubs. 

Whatever  solution  the  future  may  hold,  employers 
are  beginning  to  realize  that  it  is  not  through  greater 
individual  indulgences,  more  equality  or  higher  wages 
that  the  problems  are  to  be  solved.  Employees  do 
not  ask  to  be  admitted,  to  the  family  circle.  Self- 
respecting  helpers  would  not  feel  comfortable  were 
this  provision  made,  nor  is  it  a  practical  way  of 
removing  the  difficulty.  What  they  desire  as  a  class 
is,  rather,  the  opportunity  of  independence  which  other 
forms  of  employment  afford  and  which  is  missed  in 
this — a  chance  to  perform  their  work  and,  apart  from 


496 


DOMESTIC  SERVICE  95 

that,  to  live  their  own  lives  in  their  own  way. 

However  desirable  any  opening  or  advantage,  the 
spirit  of  liberty  demands  that  it  be  chosen  rather  than 
forced  upon  one.  What  domestic  service  is  really 
claiming  for  itself  is  some  adjustment  whereby  definite 
hours  shall  be  secured,  and,  outside  that,  free  choice  of 
amusement,  personal  improvement,  friendships — life. 

This,  when  secured,  will  prove  one  of  the  most 
reasonable  and  satisfactory  aids  to  the  solution  of 
difficulties  of  both  employers  and  employees.  The 
final  adjustment  to  the  same  basis  as  all  other  indus- 
trial and  business  activities  will  be  a  work  of  time,  no 
doubt,  but  it  seems  to  be  the  inevitable  goal. 

As  employers  and  the  world  at  larg^e  erain  and  keep 
in  mind  a  truer  conception  of  the  importance  of  house- 
hold employment  in  the  economic  world  there  will 
follow  better  practical  results.  As  long  as  employers 
express  scorn  of  these  duties  little  can  be  hoped  for  in 
the  way  of  "dignifying  labor"  in  the  home.  The 
efficiency  of  the  housework  cannot  be  expected  to  rise 
above  that  of  the  mistress  as  manager.  There  is  deep 
significance  in  the  words  of  one  who  wrote :  "To  know 
the  workman  one  must  have  been  a  workman  himself, 
and,  above  all,  remember  it."  The  housekeeper  must 
know  the  household  affairs  and  respect  them  if  she 
would  have  others  do  the  same. 

There  are  some  experiments  being  carried  on  at  the 
present  time  that  all  should  follow  with  interest. 
These  go  far  to  prove  that  the  preceding  statements 
are  not  without  foundation.  Notable  among  these  is 


Definite 
Hours 


Industrial 
Basis 


Dignity 
of  Labor 


497 


96  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

the  attempt  which  has  been  made  in  Boston  to  create 
an  attractive  home  center  for  helpers,  from  which  they 
go  each  day  for  a  definite  number  of  hours  for  employ- 
ment in  various  homes  which  desire  their  services. 
The  helpers  are  classified  and  graded,  as  already  sug- 
gested, according  to  efficiency,  the  wages  paid  corre- 
sponding to  the  degree  of  skill  attained.  There  is 
adequate  stimulus  to  advancement,  as  instruction  is 
given  at  the  home  center.  The  home  life  is  natural 
and  congenial,  every  attempt  being  made  to  enhance 
the  wholesome  pleasure  to  be  derived  from  such  a 
place.  The  rapidly  increasing  popularity  of  the  experi- 
ment shows  that  no  mistake  has  been  made  in  the 
diagnosis  of  the  employee's  point  of  view.  For  the 
employer  there  is  the  difficulty  of  arranging  the  work 
to  fit  such  a  plan  so  that  the  desirable  work  shall  be 
secured  at  a  price  not  exceeding  the  expense  of  resi- 
dent help.  This  is  a  difficult  thing  to  do,  a  thing  not 
yet  accomplished,  but  which  the  ingenuity  of  woman 
will  yet  solve.  Without  doubt  it  will  mean  the  simpli- 
fying of  life  in  some  homes,  but  if  this  is  wisely 
arranged  it  will  be  a  gain  rather  *-han  a  loss. 


498 


BUYING  SUPPLIES 

Women,  as  a  usual  thing,  spend  such  small  sums  of 
money  at  a  time  in  their  purchases  for  the  house,  that 
they  are  apt  to  lose  sight  of  the  size  of  the  total  amount 
expended  in  a  year.  Not  realizing  the  value  of  the  ag- 
gregate it  follows  that  they  hesitate  and  study  returns 
far  more  carefully  and  intelligently  in  investing  one 
hundred  dollars  in  any  other  way  than  in  placing  the 
same  amount  in  household  supplies.  Those  who  real- 
ize the  importance  of  economic  buying  follow  cur- 
rent prices  and  buy  when  the  market  offers  the  best 
inducements.  The  difference  in  time  expended  in  ex- 
ercising this  care  is  not  as  great  as  is  fancied.  Watch- 
fulness and  interest  count  chiefly.  There  are  times  of 
legitimate  annual  or  clearance  sales  when  real  bar- 
gains may  be  secured.  These  should  be  watched  for 
and  taken  advantage  of  in  buying  yearly  supplies  of 
things  which  may  be  safely  stored.  If  the  articles  to 
be  purchased  are  such  as  suffer  from  the  competition 
of  "style"  one  is  especially  enabled,  with  a  slight  sac- 
rifice of  style  to  quality,  to  reap  a  rich  harvest  at  the 
expense  of  the  foolish  of  the  world  who  must  have 
the  very  latest  fad  at  whatever  cost.  The  extremes 
of  fashion  are  folly  economically,  in  that  they  make  it 
impossible  to  realize  nearly  the  value  of  money  ex- 
pended. 

There  is  only  a  small  range  of  supplies  in  which 
there  is  a  marked  style.  Individual  preference  controls 

97 


Relative 
Importance 


Legitimate 
Bargains 


Buying  in 
Quantity 


Storage 


98  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

in  the  selection  of  most,  so  that  when  one  has  de- 
termined upon  the  most  desirable  brand,  variety,  etc., 
there  are  left  but  three  things  which  must  be  weighed 
in  deciding  the  amount  to  be  bought.  These  are  ( I ) 
room  for  storage,  (2)  ready  money  for  the  purchase, 
and  (3)  the  perishable  nature  of  the  article.  The 
economy  of  buying  in  quantity  must,  necessarily,  de- 
pend to  a  large  extent  upon  these  points.  When  these 
can  be  satisfactorily  met  there  is  great  advantage  in 
buying  in  quantity.  Thereby  one  has  the  advantage  of 
wholesale  prices  or  great  reduction  over  retail  prices 
on  quantities  not  too  large  for  a  moderate-sized  fam- 
ily to  dispose  of  within  desirable  limits  of  time. 

The  family  that  finds  it  necessary  to  buy  its  supply 
of  coal  by  the  fraction  of  a  ton  and  flour  by  the  pound, 
suffers  great  loss  through  the  increased  expense,  pay- 
ing often  very  nearly  twice  as  much  as  the  same  grade 
would  cost  in  larger  quantity,  and  with  no  gain  since 
these  products  gain  in  value  rather  than  lose,  by  stor- 
age. Buying  in  small  quantities  at  retail  means  pay- 
ing a  generous  profit  for  grocer  or  messenger  boy's 
wages  in  delivering  the  small  amounts.  Again,  one 
suffers  from  having  to  look  her  supplies  over  fre- 
quently or  has  the  annoyance  of  finding  something 
missing  when  wanted. 

The  changed  conditions  of  modern  life  from  those 
of  our  grandmothers  affect  our  habits  in  regard  to 
storing  supplies.  Now  that  a  large  number  of  homes 
are  rented,  each  room  counting  and  swelling  the 


500 


BUYING  SUPPLIES  90 

monthly  bill,  it  has  naturally  led  to  economy  of  space. 
The  uncertainty  of  residence  with  some  has  its  effect 
also,  as  the  expense  of  moving  is  increased  by  quantity, 
and  the  danger  of  injury  and  breakage  all  have  to  be 
reckoned  with.  One  great  misfortune  which  results 
from  these  considerations  is  the  inclination  to  turn  to 
cheap  grades  which  are  more  readily  disposed  of  at 
such  a  time  or  cause  less  regret  if  injured.  Thereby 
we  are  losing  some  of  the  refining  influences  of  acquir- 
ing and  possessing  the  best.  This  applies  especially 
to  furniture  and  utensils,  which  ought  to  be  bought 
as  though  they  were  to  last  a  lifetime. 

There  is  a  happy  medium  between  the  huge  chests  Medium 
of  linen  in  former  time  which  held  supplies  not  used 
for  years,  yellowing  with  age,  and  the  modern  ten- 
dency of  hand-to-mouth  provision,  satisfying  only  the 
weekly  demand.  There  should  be  always  a  small 
emergency  store  of  linen.  Additions  can  be  too  easily 
made  to  require  that  it  be  very  large.  In  fact,  since 
it  may  be  added  to,  usually,  any  day,  the  principal 
gain  is  realized  by  being  able  to  buy  better  at  certain 
seasons,  as  in  January,  than  others,  and  the  same 
i  eduction  in  price  by  buying  in  quantity  may  be  real- 
ized in  this  as  in  groceries.  Dish  toweling  by  the  roll 
at  133/2  cents  instead  of  15  cents  a  yard,  sheeting  by 
the  web  or  piece  at  a  similar  reduction,  etc.,  are  illus- 
trations of  the  benefits  to  be  derived  through  such 
methods  of  buying.  An  especial  reason  for  buying 
table  linens  in  January,  in  addition  to  any  attractive 


ioo  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

prices  which  may  be  found  at  that  time,  is  that  the 
fresh  supply  of  goods  is  in  then  and  one  may  so 
secure  a  better  selection.  For  storing  linens  a  special 
chest  or  linen  closet  is  very  desirable  and  should  be 
included  in  planning  a  house,  but  when  not  provided, 
an  ordinary  closet  may  be  used,  drawers,  a  trunk  or 
a  home-constructed  box,  any  of  which  answers  every 
purpose  if  well  cared  for. 

storage  For  storing  groceries  the  requirements  are  a  light, 
dry,  cool  room,  as  near  the  kitchen  and  pantries  as 
possible.  It  should  be  supplied  with  lock  and  key, 
which  the  housekeeper  or  a  trusted  helper  controls. 
Large  quantities  may  so  be  put  into  it  and  smaller 
portions  given  out  as  needed  for  use.  This  is  both 
an  aid  to  economy  (since  the  tendency  is  to  use  more 
liberally  if  there  is  a  large  amount  at  hand)  and 
prevents  such  supplies  as  baking  powder,  tea,  spices, 
etc.,  from  losing  in  value  through  standing  open.  A 
year's  supply  is  usually  as  large  an  amount  as  it  is 
well  to  buy  at  a  time.  This  is  especially  true  of 
canned  goods.  These  should  be  bought  in  the  fall 
after  the  fresh  supply  is  in  market.  By  the  dozen,  or 
better  yet,  by  the  case  of  two  dozen,  canned  goods 
may  be  secured  at  a  reduction  of  from  ten  to  twenty- 
five  per  cent.  The  same  is  true  of  the  pack- 
ages of  cereals,  although  for  small  families  cereals 
cannot  be  used  rapidly  enough  to  buy  in  large  quan- 
tity. It  will  be  found  to  be  well  worth  while  for  those 
of  limited  space  to  attempt  to  make  space  somewhere 
for  some  storage  room.  With  a  large  number  of 


502 


BUYING  SUPPLIED 


101 


families  that  are  not  cramped  for  room  it  should  be  a 
matter  of  more  consideration  to  utilize  a  portion  for 
this  purpose. 

It  is  only  the  very  poor  who  have  an  excuse  for 
being  too  limited  in  ready  money  for  such  advance 
purchasing.  It  is  but  thrifty  to  see  to  it  that  there 
is  at  least  a  small  capital  which  may  be  used  for  such 
advantage.  When  once  started  it  is  a  simple  matter, 
since  after  that  the  woman  of  forethought  will  look 
ahead  and  plan  so  that  the  funds  will  be  at  hand  as  the 
supply-time  comes  around.  Of  course  there  is  no 
economy  in  buying  at  a  reduction  a  supply  which  is 
so  rapidly  perishable  in  nature  as  to  cause  a  loss  of 
enough  to  off-set,  or  more,  the  gain  through  getting 
in  large  amount.  This  is  but  a  waste  of  time  and 
energy  as  well  as  money.  Vegetables  are  much 
cheaper  by  the  bushel  or  barrel,  and  fruit,  as  oranges, 
by  the  box,  but  one  must  have  a  cold  storage  room  to 
insure  the  safe  keeping  of  either  for  any  length  of 
time.  Even  then  there  must  be  care  in  looking  them 
over  frequently  to  remove  any  that  are  decayed.  For 
most  families,  therefore,  it  proves  more  satisfactory  to 
buy  perishable  articles  as  needed. 

A  great  difficulty  confronts  the  would-be-wise  buyer 
to-day  in  the  fact  that  it  is  hard  to  establish  standards 
of  quality  without  some  sad  experience.  When  the 
housewife  manufactured  her  own  soap  she  knew  be- 
yond a  question  what  constituted  an  excellent  article. 
Through  handling  different  kinds  of  cloth,  in  weaving 


Ready 
Money 


Perishable 
Supplies 


Quality 


503 


102 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


or  sewing,  standards  were  created  in  that  direction. 
Ignorance  of  real  value  makes  the  thriving  "bargain 
Remnants  counters"  possible  with  their  "remnants"  cut  from  the 
webs  on  the  shelves  and  offered  at  a  price  equal  or 
even  in  excess  of  that  for  which  the  same  goods  may 
be  bought  by  the  yard  elsewhere  in  the  same  store. 
Shrewd,  not  over-scrupulous  merchants  are  bound  to 
take  advantage  where  it  is  possible,  and  the  ignorant, 
unsuspecting  purchaser  pays  a  dear  price  for  his  or 
her  ignorance. 

utensils  In  buying  utensils  the  maxim,  "The  best  is  the 
cheapest,"  is  an  excellent  one  to  bear  in  mind.  One 
who  makes  a  trial  of  different  grades  has  ample  oppor- 
tunity to  prove  its  truth.  Cheap  goods  often  increases 
the  expense  100  per  cent,  while  at  no  time  does  one 
secure  anything  of  the  satisfaction  in  use  that  is 
secured  in  the  better  class  goods.  Cheapness  means, 
perforce,  haste  or  flaw  in  manufacture.  This  results, 
naturally,  in  ill-shaped,  defective  ware.  Durability 
seems  to  be  a  thing  no  longer  estimated,  so  little  does 
it  enter  into  account  in  manufacture  or  purchase.  No- 
where is  the  difference  more  marked  than  in  kitchen 
utensils.  Spoons  with  soldered  or  riveted  handles, 
ready  to  part  company  with  the  bowls  on  the  first  real 
test  of  strength  or  heat,  are  poor  economy.  The  same 
is  true  of  the  enamel  ware  which  crackles  and  chips 
off  with  the  first  accidental  heating  or  "sticking  on" 
of  food,  after  which  it  is  unfit  for  use.  So  one  might 
enumerate  many  illustrations  of  false  economy  of  this 


504 


BUYING  SUPPLIES 


103 


nature.  It  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  pay  a  little  more 
at  the  time  and  thus  secure  better  wearing  qualities 
and  far  greater  satisfaction.  The  cheapest  is  rarely 
wise. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  medium-priced  article  in  many 
things  has  real  worth  to  recommend  it  to  one  prac- 
tising close  economy.  In  such  purchases  as  bed  or 
table  linen  and  toweling,  for  example,  the  difference 
between  a  medium  and  high-priced  grade  may  repre- 
sent the  difference  between  hand  work  and  machine, 
between  embroidered  or  hemstitched  articles  and 
plainer.  Since  this  is  not  a  question  of  durability,  a 
purchaser  has  a  legitimate  right  to  weigh  the  differ- 
ences in  the  light  of  her  allowance  and  decide  in  favor 
of  the  plainer  if  it  be  wiser.  It  should,  however, 
always  be  a  decision  based  on  an  intelligent  considera- 
tion of  values.  One  should  never  be  at  a  loss  when 
detecting  coarse,  loosely  woven  and  shoddy  fabrics 
or  other  evidences  of  cheap  work.  Other  differences 
she  may  be  justified  in  weighing,  never  that. 

One  may  purchase  most  supplies  either  in  a  depart- 
ment store  or  in  one  devoted  to  a  single  or  limited 
line  of  goods.  There  is,  on  the  whole,  a  difference 
to  be  found  both  in  quality  and  price  of  the  stock  in 
the  two  places.  The  grade  of  goods  in  the  specialty 
store  is  usually  better  and  the  price  somewhat  higher. 
The  department  store  has  gained  great  popularity 
because  of  the  convenience  of  purchasing  everything 
in  one  place  and  because  of  competition  in  prices 


Medium 

Priced 

Articles 


Department 
and    Specialty 
Stores 


505 


Classes   of 
Supplies 


"Must  Haves" 
and  "May  Haves" 


104  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

which  seem  at  sight  to  favor  trading  there.  The 
careful  buyer  will  frequently  find  the  difference  in 
price  more  than  equalized  in  the  quality  of  the  pur- 
chase. This  is  especially  noticeable  in  kitchen  fur- 
nishings. The  sharpness  of  the  competition  has  tend- 
ed to  lower  prices  in  the  specialty  store  as  far  as  the 
quality  of  the  wares  will  allow. 

Supplies  may  be  classed  as  (i)  furnishings  or 
utensils  which  are  subjected  to  wear  and  consequently 
must  be  replenished  from  time  to  time,  as  furniture, 
bedding,  carpets,  kitchen,  laundry  and  dining-room 
furnishings;  (2)  such  supplies  as  are  consumed  in 
one  way  or  another  and  so  must  be  replenished,  as 
fuel,  food,  soap  and  the  like,  and  (3)  such  miscel- 
laneous supplies  as  daily  newspapers,  magazines, 
plants,  flowers,  etc. 

In  buying  these  supplies  one  may  divide  them  into 
essentials  or  "must  haves"  and  accessories  or  "may 
haves."  The  first  division  one  must  secure  at  once. 
It  is  well  to  leave  the  second  list  to  be  remodeled 
after  one  has  lived  in  a  house  for  a  while. 

It  is  surprising  to  one  who  ha.s  some  experience 
like  camp  life  to  find  how  few  the  absolute  essentials 
really  are.  Many  accessories  have. come  to  be  looked 
upon  as  "must  haves"  through  long  use.  The  evi- 
dence of  some  utility  in  everything,  together  with 
refinement  of  taste  in  every  selection,  are  the  great 
essentials  in  giving  a  home  the  subtle  charm  and 
comfort  which  we  covet.  Furnishings  need  not  be 
many  in  number  nor  elaborate  in  quality  to  satisfy 


506 


BUYING  SUPPLIES 


105 


these  requirements.     The  greater  the  simplicity  the 
more  satisfactory,  usually. 

The  following  are  lists  of  kitchen,  laundry,  dining- 
room  and  bed-room  furnishings,  with  average  prices. 
The  amount  of  equipment  required  is  determined  by 
the  size  of  the  family  and  its  demands.  For  two  peo-  • 
pie  of  simple  tastes  the  kitchen  utensils  may  be  quite 
limited  and  the  dining-room  furnishings  few.  The 
same  things  are  required  in  bed-room  fittings  as  for  a 
large  family,  but  not  in  such  numbers. 

KITCHEN  UTENSILS 

Range $30  00  and  up 

Coal  hod .75 

Shovel,  poker,  lifter 50 

Towel  rack 25 

Teakettle 1 .25  up 

3  Stew  pans,  1  quart  to  8  quarts 75  to  $3.50 

Frying  pan 60  \ip 

Double  boiler 1.50  '• 

Broilers,  fish,  meat  and  toaster 90 

Frying  basket. 20  to     .35 

Muffin  pan 50  up 

Colander 10  '• 

Coffeepot 1.25  " 

Tea  pot : 75  " 

Chopping  knife  and  bowl 75 

Meat  chopper 1 . 00  up 

Strainers 10  '• 

Bread  pans,  2  or  more 50 

Breadboard 50 

Meat  board 50 

Rolling  pin 25  to  1 .00 

Flour  sieve 10  '•      .25 

Scoops  for  flour,  sugar,  meal,  etc 10  "      .50 

Pans  or  basins,  2  or  more 30  up 

Bowls,  about  five  in  assorted  sizes 75  " 

Dishpans 10  " 

Drainer 10  '• 

Dishcloths 25 

Floor  and  stove  brushes 

Broom 50 

Dustpan  25 

Meat  and  bread  knives 75  up 

Case  knives  and  forks 90 

Vegetable  knives 20 

Dripping  pan 1 . 00 

Egg  beaters  2,  Surprise  and  Dover 50 


Lists 


507 


io6  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

KITCHEN    UTENSILS    (Continued) 

Graters 35 

Measuring  cups 25 

Lemon  squeezer '.'..'.'  '  10 

Plates,  granite 40 

Skewers 25 

Spoons .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'..'.....'.'.'.'.'.'      1 . 00  t o  3 . 00 

Bread  box ,  ....          75  up 

Hand  basin  for  sink '.30 

Funnel '.'.'.'.'.'.        JO 

Vegetable  or  pudding  dishes,  2  or  more 50  up 

Potato  masher 25  " 

Garbage  pail 75  " 

Refrigerator 15.00 

Receptacles  for  flour,  sugar,  cereals,  spices,  condiments, 

molasses,  etc. 
Chairs,  stool,  table. 

Prices  The  utensils  on  above  list  may  be  considered  "must 
haves."  The  prices  of  the  various  things  vary  within 
quite  wide  limits,  as  will  be  seen.  The  housekeeper 
should  know  enough  of  the  materials  composing  uten- 
sils to  guide  her  in  the  choice  of  material  and  price. 
This  she  cannot  know  without  some  knowledge  of 
the  action  of  the  ordinary  acids  and  alkalis  used  in 
cooking  and  cleaning  operations  on  tin,  iron,  porce- 
lain, agate,  etc.  To  the  list  first  given  may  be  added 
many  other  things,  many  of  which  would  be  "must 
haves"  in  some  kitchens. 

Estimate  A  fair  estimate  for  fitting  a  kitchen  with  utensils 
given  is  from  $35.00  to  $40.00,  including  refrigerator, 
but  not  including  range.  $100.00  is  not  too  large  a 
sum  to  apportion  to  proper  kitchen  fittings  if  the  range 
be  included,  and  it  is  desired  to  begin  with  enough 
good  utensils  to  make  the  work  easy. 


508 


BUYING  SUPPLIES 


Potato  and  Vegetable  Press 


Salt  Box- 


Meat   Chopper 


Soap  Savers,  to  utilize  scraps. 


Slaw  Cutter,  knife  adjustable  to 
cut  fine  or  coarse. 


Sink  Strainer;  keeps  garbage 

from  clogging  sink  and  pipes.  Household  Scales 

SOME  "MAY  HAVES"  IN  KITCHEN  UTENSILS. 


509 


io8  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

LAUNDRY   EQUIPMENT 

Tubs,  1  or  2 $3.00 

soapstone 7  00  or  $8  00  each 

Washboard 25  to       50 

Wringer 2.75  "     4  50 

Boiler 175"     300 

Pails,  2  or  more,  "  Fibrotta  "  50 

Baskets,  lor  2 1. 25  to   250 

Dipper , 15 

Soap  dishes 15 

Clothes  stick 10 

Clothes  line  and  reel  for  same 50  to    1  10 

Clothes  pins,  1  gross  ...  25  up 

Skirt  board 1.25  •• 

Bosom     "  .25 

Whisk 10 

Sad-irons,  3  at  least 60 

Iron  stand  or  asbestos  mat . .         .  15 

Holders 20 

Clothes  horse «75 

Small  vegetable  or  nail  brush 10 

Scrubbing  brush 15 

Ironing  sheet 30 

Blanket  or  felt 1 .00  up 

Watering  pot 15  " 

Average  Estimate £18.00 


ADDITIONAL   UTENSILS    FOR    SEPARATE    LAUNDRY 

Stove  .  $8  00  to  $25  00 

Coal  hod 25  "        .75 

Shovel,  poker  lifter 25 

Basins,  2 50 

Saucepan  or  kettle  for  starch 50 

Strainer 10 

Pans  or  tub  for  starch 30 

Earthen  bowls,  3  or  more 30 

Wooden  or  agate  spoons,  2 30 

Table  or  laundry  settle 2.00  to     6.75 

Case  knife 15 

Broom  or  floor  brush 50  "      2.00 

Small  brush 50 

Dustpan 25 

Scrub  brushes,  2 30 

Chair 70 

Total  Estimate,  liberal $40.00 

«  "  fair...  4. 00  to  $5. 00 


510 


BUYING  SUPPLIES 


109 


LAUNDRY   SUPPLIES 

I  soft, 
Soap,  <  hard,  and 

(  sand. 

Borax  07  per  Ib. 

Washing  soda  . .  03 

Chloride  of  lime .10 

Alum 07 

Paraffin  or  Spermaceti 15 

Beeswax  (pure) 35 

Gum  Arabic 50 

French  ball  blue  or  ultramarine 25 

Ammonia  (pure) 25  per  qt. 

Alcohol .40       " 

Kerosine 09  to  .15  per  gal. 

Hydrochloric  acid 10    "     oz. 

Acetic  acid 10    " 

Oxalic  acid  (crystals) 05    " 

Starch 10    "    pkg. 


Salt 

Sandpaper 

Bags  for  boards,  line  and  pins 

Bags  for  small  articles  in  boiler 

Bags  for  lace  curtains 

Cloths  for  covers 

"       "    scrubbing 
Clock 


Sewing  materials 

Buttons 

Pins  and  cushion 

Scissors 

Twine 

Newspapers 

Thin  paper 

Old  sheets  and  flannel 


DINING    ROOM    FURNISHING 


Rug  9x12  ft 
Shades  .. 
Table  . . . 


$10 


Chairs,  common 1 

arm,  high 3 

Sideboard   15, 

Serving  table 4 

Table  linen,  3  cloths 

4  doz.  napkins 

2  carving  cloth s 

Tableware  (Dinner  set,  or  its  equivalent 12 

stock  pattern) ,  semi-porcelain  China 25 

Glassware  2 

Cutlery,  knives,  1  doz.  steel  blades 3 

Carving  set 3 

Silver-plated,  quadruple 

knives  per  doz  .. ..                                3. 

forks     "      " 4. 

tablespoons       "    " 5 

dessertspoons    "    " 4 

teaspoons          "    " 3. 

Silence  cloth  4.6  x  8 1 

Average  Estimate  for  small  family,  $75.00  to  $150. 


00  to  $100. 00  up 
90  per  window. 
.00  to  $50. 00  up. 
75  "  10  00 
00  "  15. CO 
00  "  :>U  00 
00  "  30.00 

9  00 
10  00 

2  00 

.00  to    40.00 
00  up 
00   " 

.50  to      8.00 
00   "     10.00 

50   "      6  00 
50  •'      6.00 
.00  up 
50   " 
00  " 
.00 
00 


511 


1  10 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


BED    ROOM    FURNISHING 

Matting ..  $10  00  up 

Rugs 5.00 

Shades  and  draperies  (2  windows) 3  00 

Enameled  bed  with  spring 8  00 

Mattress T^]  sioo  to  $50.00 

2  Pillows 5.00t  p 

5  Sheets 2  00 

3  Pairs  Pillow  cases 50 

4  Blankets 10.00 

2 Counterpanes 3.00 

Mattress  cover 1 .00 

Bureau 10  00  to    75.00 

Washstand 400         2500 

Table 1 . 75        loioo 

Rocker 2  00  up 

2  Chairs  .                 .  3  00 

Couch 8 . 00 

Toilet  set 3.00 

1  doz.  Towels .75 

4  Bath  Towels 50 

Average  Estimate ...  .$60.00  to  $90.00 


Floor 
Covering 


Stove 


Utensils 


KITCHEN   FURNISHINGS 

In  selecting  kitchen  furnishings  it  will  be  found 
that  a  linoleum  covering  for  the  floor  will  give  the 
greatest  satisfaction,  preferably  one  which  is  entirely 
plain  or  with  a  pattern  which  extends  all  the  way 
through.  Next  to  linoleum,  a  hardwood  floor.  An 
oilcloth  is  unsatisfactory,  unless  it  be,  perhaps,  the 
best  quality,  for  a  small  family  which  will  not  give  it 
hard  wear.  A  painted  floor  is  hard  to  care  for  and  is, 
in  many  respects,  least  desirable. 

In  selecting  a  stove  a  steel  range  is  by  far  the  most 
desirable,  if  possible.  It  is  more  expensive  in  first  cost 
than  a  cast-iron  stove,  but  this  difference  is  more 
than  offset  by  efficiency,  economy  of  fuel  and  dura- 
bility. 

Galvanized  iron  is  the  most  desirable  material  for 
such  utensils  as  coal  hod,  garbage  and  ash  cans  and 


512 


KITCHEN  FURNISHINGS 


in 


the  like,  being  superior  because  of  its  light  weight, 
durability  and  cleanliness. 

A  nickeled  teakettle  with  copper  bottom  is  very  sat- 
isfactory for  general  use,  costing  about  $2.50.  Alumi- 
num ware  is  increasing  in  favor.  Its  price  alone 
limits  its  use.  The  price  of  a  teakettle  is  from  $2.25 
up,  but  the  aluminum  teakettle  wears  a  lifetime. 
Stransky  ware  is,  next  to  aluminum,  the  most  durable 
of  any  for  cooking  utensils.  It  is  moderate  in  price, 
the  teakettles  being  $1.75  to  $2.25.  Tin  is  very  unde- 
sirable for  almost  all  cooking  utensils,  as  water  and 
acids  act  upon  the  tin,  forming  unhealthful  chemical 
compounds.  For  such  uses  as  are  allowable,  one 
should  buy  block  tin  with  rolled  edge.  The  grade  is 
readily  seen  by  markings  on  the  back.  The  cheapest 
is  marked  X,  medium  XX,  .best  XXX  or  XXXX. 
Those  tins  which  have  fewest  crevices  and  seams  are 
best. 

Sheet-iron  bread  tins  with  dull  surface  are  excellent. 

Woodenware  should  be  used  as  little  as  possible, 
as  it  is  difficult  to  keep  it  sweet,  dry  and  free  from 
odors  and  insect  life.  Bread  and  meat  boards  and 
chopping  trays  are  usually  of  wood.  These  should 
never  be  cheap  in  quality,  as  the  wood  of  such  is 
soft  and  not  well  seasoned,  so  that  it  cracks  and  peels 
easily.  Wooden  spoons  should  be  those  designated  as 
the  French  holly. 

Glass  or  porcelain  jars  are  excellent  for  spices 
and  such  articles  as  rice,  tapioca,  coffee,  tea,  etc. 


Materials 


Wooden 
Ware 


513 


112 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


A  MOVABLE  KITCHEN  CABINET,  USEFUL  WHEN  THERE 
IS  NO  BUILT-IN  CABINET. 


514 


KITCHEN  FURNISHINGS  113 

These  should  be  neatly  labeled  and  conveniently  ar- 
ranged in  order  on  shelves  in  a  cupboard  near  the 
cooking  table. 

Iron  for  cooking  utensils  is  almost  a  thing  of  the      iron 
past.     Although  most  durable,  the  weight  is  sufficient      utenSS 
to  banish  it.    Agate  or  Stransky  have  taken  the  place 
to  a  great  extent.    Agate  ware  has  depreciated  greatly 
in  quality   since  first  introduced.     The  best  of  it  is 
more   durable   and   safer   than   enamel   ware.      Sheet 
iron  frying  pans  are  best,  as  they  endure  the  highest 
heat.     Steel  is  next.     Agate  may  be  used  for  certain 
things. 

Chairs  should  be  tested  for  comfort.    Wooden  ones,      chairs 
if   properly    constructed,    may    be    very    comfortable. 
The  shape  and  length  of  back,  seat  and  legs  greatly 
affect  the  comfort.     A  high  stool  is  a  strength  saver 
when  working  at  the  table. 

Tables  constructed  for  kitchen  use  are  a  great  addi-  Table* 
tion  in  modern  furnishings.  They  are  supplied  with 
drawers  for  knives,  spoons  and  such  small  utensils. 
Those  of  white  wood  are  cheapest,  pine  being  about  50 
per  cent  more.  The  drawer  increases  the  expense 
slightly,  but  this  will  not  be  grudgingly  paid  by  one 
who  has  once  enjoyed  the  advantage  secured.  The 
top  should  be  unfinished,  very  smooth  and  even.  It 
should  be  made  of  one  piece  of  wood  to  avoid  cracks. 
Oilcloth  may  be  used  as  a  covering,  although  less 
convenient  because  of  the  care  necessary  to  avoid 
setting  anything  hot  on  it.  Paisit  is  altogether  unde- 
sirable for  the  same  reason. 


515 


TABLE   AND  BED   LINEN,   TOWELLING,    ETC. 

In  buying  cotton  and  linen  material  for  the  various 
needs  of  the  house,  one  must  consider  the  use  to  be 
made  of  it  and  select  accordingly.  Towelling  suitable 
for  glass  and  silver  is  not  suitable  for  cooking  uten- 
sils, and  vice  versa.  If  cast  off  garments,  old  bed 
linen  and  the  like  are  thriftily  cherished  and  pre- 
served, much  exoense  is  saved  and  frequently  better 
cloths  secured  than  in  using  new.  For  scrubbing 
purposes  a  soft  cloth  that  will  not  scratch  is  desirable, 
at  the  same  time  it  must  have  a  certain  firmness  and 
roughness  for  the  friction  necessary.  One  of  the  best 
materials  for  general  purposes  of  this  kind  is  the 
woven  underwear.  Outing  flannel  and  "mill  ends" 
are  also  excellent. 

For  drying,  cloth  with  good  absorbing  quality  is 
necessary.  Cotton  is  undesirable,  especially  if  new 
and  not  worn  until  softened.  Linen  is  best  for  the 
purpose  and  is  easiest  to  care  for.  It  gives  off  less 
lint  than  cotton.  Cheap  qualities  are  less  well  pre- 
pared and  scratch. 

For  dish  towels,  a  medium  light  weight  linen  towel- 
ling is  best,  a  still  heavier  for  the  china  dishes,  while 
a  firm,  heavy  crash,  like  the  Royal  Russian,  is  service- 
able for  cooking  utensils.  The  latter  is  also  excel- 
lent for  kitchen  hand  towels. 

For  washing  dishes  the  small  mops  are  excellent 
for  glassware  and  are  preferred  by  many  for  the 

114 


516 


TABLE  AND  BED  LINEN  115 

entire  dish  washing.  They  are  inexpensive  and  are 
not  difficult  to  keep  sweet  with  proper  care.  Cheese- 
cloth is  very  satisfactory  for  silver  and  glass. 

Cheesecloth  should  be  kept  on  hand  for  various 
purposes,  as  wiping  meat,  drying  lettuce  when  washed, 
tying  up  fish  to  boil,  straining  soups  and  jellies,  dust 
cloths  and  many  other  uses.  It  is  easily  cleansed,  is 
soft  and  readily  absorbent  when  old  and  is  free  from 
lint.  For  drying  windows  and  lamps  cheesecloth  is 
excellent,  or  old  napkins  rough  dried.  Old  cotton,  as 
sheets  and  pillow  cases,  is  fairly  good. 

Hand  towels  may  be  of  crash,  damask  or  huckaback. 
If  the  latter,  the  Scotch  or  Irish  is  the  best.  The 
choice  of  material  depends  upon  individual  preference 
of  smooth  or  rough  surface.  The  damask  is  soft,  fine 
and  smooth,  the  huckaback  rougher.  The  Irish  hucka- 
back is  woven  with  smooth  dots  for  overthreads  and 
is  a  fine  grade.  The  Scotch  is  woven  looser  and  is 
more  showy.  It  is  cheaper,  but  is  good  when  washed. 
The  damask  toweling  is  a  poor  absorbent,  because 
of  its  smooth,  satiny  surface.  It  is  cheapest  to  buy 
huckaback  by  the  yard  and  hemstitch  it.  Fringed 
towels  should  be  avoided,  as  they  are  difficult  to  iron 
well  and  the  fringe  eventually  wears  off,  leaving  un- 
sightly ends.  If  fringed  at  all  it  should  be  tied. 

Turkish  toweling  of  good  quality  is  best  for  bath 
towels.  Although  cotton,  it  is  so  woven  as  to  be 
readily  absorbent 


517 


Sheetins 


Bleach 


Brands   of 

Cotton 

Cloth 


Size    of 
Sheets 


BED    LINEN 

Sheeting  was  formerly  woven  in  narrow  widths 
only  one  yard  wide,  necessitating  laborious  seaming  in 
the  middle  of  a  sheet.  At  the  present  time  it  is  pos- 
sible to  secure  sheeting  woven  for  single,  two-thirds 
or  double  beds,  so  that  hems  at  top  and  bottom  are 
the  only  needful  sewing.  Ready  made  sheets  and 
pillow  cases  may  also  be  bought  in  most  places,  less 
carefully  made  than  home-made,  but  temptingly  inex- 
pensive, and  conveniently  ready  for  use.  In  provid- 
ing in  eithef  way  one  should  have  the  size  of  the  bed 
carefully  in  mind  and  secure  sheets  and  pillow  cases 
ample  in  size. 

Cotton  suitable  for  this  purpose  comes  bleached, 
half-bleached  or  unbleached.  The  unbleached  is  two 
or  three  cents  per  yard  cheaper  than  the  bleached, 
and  is  more  durable,  this  being  due  to  the  fact  of 
chemicals  being  used  in  the  process  of  bleaching  which 
affect  the  fibre.  This  is,  however,  not  often  selected 
on  account  of  the  color.  The  half -bleached  is  less 
objectionable. 

There  is  considerable  choice  in  the  different  brands 
of  cotton.  Among  the  best  are  the  Wamsetta,  Fruit 
of  the  Loom  and  Pequot. 

For  a  full  sized  double  bed,  one  should  buy  the 
10  quarters  width  of  sheeting,  for  a  two-thirds  width 
bed  8  quarters,  and  for  a  cot  or  single  bed  6  quarters. 
Pillow  casing  will  vary  to  fit  the  size  of  the  pillow,  5 

116 


518 


TABLE  AND  BED  LINEN  117 

quarters   or  45   ins.   being  a   large   size   and  42   ins. 
medium. 

The  price  depends  upon  the  brand  and  size.     The      Price 
best  Wamsetta  in  the   10  quarters  width  is  400  per 
yard,  5  quarters  width  i8c,  while  cheaper  grades  may 
be  had  at  28c  for  the  10  quarters  width  and  12  i-2c  for 
the  5  quarters. 

Made  sheets,  entirely  plain,  in  the  best  Wamsetta 

brand   are   about   as   follows: 

• 

90  in.  x  99  in 85c 

72  in.  x  99  in 75c 

Cheaper : 

90  in.  x  99  in 750 

72  in.  x  99  in 55c 

The  tubing  for  pillow  slips,  woven  without  seams, 
are  about: 

45   in 140 

42  in ' I3C 

36  in I2C 

Made  up I5c  each,  up 

The  unbleached  may  be  secured  of  Pequot  cotton  in 
the  made  sheets,  largest  size,  55  cents  each. 

TABLE  LINEN 

Most  of  the  material  sold  as  table  linen  is  imported.      Grades 
Its  manufacture  has  been  attempted  in  this  country, 
but  the  temperature  is  unfavorable,  so  that  the  result 
is  an  inferior  quality. 

There  are  three  leading  supplies — the  Irish,  Scotch 
and  German,  +l*e  Belgian,  Austrian  and  French  being 


519 


Hints  on 
Selecting 


ii8  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

included  under  the  latter.    The  Irish  is  considered  the 
best  "and  is  most  expensive. 

BieacMng  The  time  of  bleaching  is  a  large  factor  in  deter- 
mining the  value  of  the  linen.  Bleaching  takes  from 
the  weight.  The  natural  and  best  method  is  the  grass 
bleaching  in  summer;  next  to  that  the  snow.  Arti- 
ficial methods  take  from  the  strength  of  the  fabric. 
It  is  difficult  even  for  experts  to  detect  the  method. 
It  is  known  by  the  times  of  coming  into  market.  The 
grass  bleached  comes  into  the  retail  market  about  the 
middle  of  December,  making  this  the  desirable  time 
to  purchase. 

A  fine  thread  damask  may  not  be  a  superior  wear- 
ing fabric.  The  weight  is  the  criterion.  The  best 
fabrics  are  not  too  fine,  firm  but  not  stiff  and  heavy 
with  starch.  Those  with  a  more  elastic,  leathery  ap- 
pearance are  better.  Those  patterns  are  less  durable 
which  have  long  unbroken  threads. 

The  German  damask  has  a  closer,  harder  twisted 
thread  than  the  others,  making  it  a  very  durable 
linen.  The  Germans  cater  less  to  variety  of  pattern 
and  therefore  produce  less  showy  cloths,  but  they  are 
very  durable  and  are  also  less  expensive. 

Patterns  In  selecting  a  pattern  a  medium-sized  pattern,  as  the 
tulip  is  very  satisfactory.  It  is  a  matter  of  taste  to  a 
great  extent.  Large  patterns  are  more  effective  than 
small  but  the  latter  are  good  taste.  Some  patterns  are 
so  generally  liked  as  to  become  stock  patterns,  as  the 
snowdrop.  These  can  be  found  in  all  stores.  With 


German 
Damask 


520 


TABLE  AND  BED  LINEN  121 

other  patterns  only  a  few  are  woven  and  these  are 
distributed  to  a  few  stores  or  a  few  of  each  to  each 
store.  The  Scotch  have  excellent  patterns,  are  finished 
about  as  well  as  the  Irish  and  cost  less. 

In  buying  one  should,  if  possible,  have  the  exact  size 
measurements  of  the  table  on  which  a  cloth  is  to  be 
used.  An  average  length  is  2  1-2  yards,  1-4  to  1-3 
yard  should  be  allowed  to  drop  at  each  end  if  the  table 
be  square.  Two  dozen  napkins  should  be  allowed  for 
each  cloth. 

Material  may  be  purchased  by  the  yard  or  in  pattern  price 
lengths.  The  latter  are  50-75  cents  per  yard  more. 
The  German  linen  runs  from  50  cents  to  $1.50  per 
yards.  The  Scotch  in  the  bleached  run  from  50  cents 
to  $2.00  or  over  per  yard.  The  Irish  even  in  un- 
bleached begins  at  75  cents  or  $1.00  per  yard  and  may 
be  $2.50  or  $3.00.  The  latter  are,  of  course,  very 
beautiful  goods,  but  for  common  use  and  durability  a 
good  quality  may  be  secured  for  $i.oo-$2.oo  per  yard. 

Napkins  vary  in  size  from  5-8,  as  they  are  termed  at      Napkins 
the  store  (17-22  in.)  known  as  breakfast  size,  to  3-4 
(23-27    in.)    and    7-8    (29-31    in.),    the    latter   being 
very  large. 

There  is  less  difference  in  the  price  of  napkins  in 
the  different  makes.  In  either  the  20  in.  napkins  vary 
in  price  from  $1.75  per  dozen  up.  Good  ones  are 
$3.oo-$3.5o  per  dozen. 

A  heavy  cloth,  known  as  the  silence  cloth,  is  an  es-      silence 
sential  accompaniment  to  a  well  appointed  table.    This      Cloth 


521 


122  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

may  be  of  felt,  or  two  faced  cotton  flannel  or  may  be 
a  quilted  or  knitted  cloth  on  purpose. 

Canton  flannel,  54  inches  wide,  5<Dc  yard ;  quilted,  54 
inches  wide,  62  i-2c  yard;  knitted,  62  inches  wide,  ?5c 
yard  give  relative  prices. 

CARPETS  AND   RUGS 

A  square  of  carpet  with  a  border  of  hard  wood 
brought  to  a  high  polish,  or  even  a  painted  border  or 
denim  or  some  similar  material  is  preferable  to  a  carpet 
covering  the  entire  floor  and  tacked  down.  Besides 
the  greater  attractiveness  it  is  much  more  cleanly,  as 
this  can  be  taken  out  of  doors  for  frequent  beating. 
Grades  Of  the  different  grades  Ingrain,  is  the  cheapest.  It 
is  loosely  woven,  and  although  its  wearing  qualities 
are  surprising  considering  the  price,  it  is  not  the  wisest 
choice  for  those  who  may  choose.  The  dirt  goes 
through  it  easily.  Pleasing  colors  are  difficult  to  se- 
cure as  these  carpets  are  colored  with  chemical  dyes 
which  are  less  soft  and  pleasing  in  effect  than  the 
vegetable  dyes,  which  are  used  in  the  best  grades.  In- 
grain carpeting  is  more  suitable  and  serviceable  for 
chambers  than  for  living  rooms.  It  is  reversible. 

Tapestry  comes  next  in  value,  resembling  Brussels 
on  the  right  side  but  having  a  canvas  back  with  colors 
on  one  side  only.  This  wears  fairly  well. 

Brussels  carpeting  is  heavy,  with  colors  on  both 
sides.  It  wears  excellently  well  and  generally  proves 
best  for  ordinary  use.  The  Brussels  carpeting  has  an 
uncut  pile  Cut  pile  carpets  are  called  velvet  carpets,  as 


522 


CARPETS  AND  RUGS 


125 


the  Axminster  and  Wilton.  The  Wilton  wear  ad- 
mirably well,  and  are  very  satisfactory  in  colors  and 
patterns. 

In  buying  by  the  yard  the  Ingrains  are  usually  a 
yard  wide,  while  Tapestry,  Brussels  and  Velvets  are 
but  3-4  of  a  yard.  In  practicing  strict  economy  much 
may  be  saved  by  buying  short  lengths,  small  patterns 
or  old  styles. 

Small  patterns,  sober  colors  and  indefinite  designs 
are  more  artistic,  cheaper  and  more  serviceable  than 
the  opposite.  One  should  endeavor  to  secure  a  gen- 
erally pleasing  effect  in  a  carpet  so  that  the  room  for 
which  it  is  designed  will  be  made  attractive  without 
one's  being  especially  conscious  through  what  means 
the  effect  is  produced.  A  carpet  with  striking  pattern 
and  color  which  arrests  and  holds  attention  is  not 
pleasing. 

Rugs  or  squares  should  not  have  borders  seamed 
at  the  corners.  The  joining  should  rather  be  directly 
across,  thus : 


Suggestion 
for  Buying 


Patterns 

and 

Color 


Hugs 


523 


126 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


Re-made 
Carpets 


Kensington 
Squares 


Smyrnas 


Persians 


A  good  old  carpet  can  be  utilized  very  satisfactorily 
by  being  re-woven  by  some  of  the  reliable  firms  which 
have  taken  up  the  business.  Even  carpeting  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  may  be  used  together  in  this  way,  if 
they  are  all-wool.  A  difference  in  color  does  not 
matter  as  the  material  is  recolored  as  desired. 

Ingrain  or  Kensington  squares,  as  they  are  often 
called,  are  more  expensive  when  real  and  imported 
than  the  American  squares.  The  price  is  by  the  yard. 
The  usual  size  of  6  or  7  1-2x9  ^eet  (2  or  2  1-2x3 
yards)  costs  $4.00  or  $4.75  up.  By  the  square  yard 
for  carpeting  a  floor  the  Ingrain  is  7O-75C  per  yard. 

Smyrna  rugs  are  alike  on  both  sides  and  are  very 
serviceable.  They  cost  $20  for  a  rug,  9x12  feet 
(9/xi2/),  $8.oo-$9.oo  for  a  rug,  2x3  feet  (2'x3'). 

Wilton's  are  most  nearly  like  the  Oriental  rugs, 
and  are  better  than  some  cheap  Persian  rugs. 

Persians,  6^9'  cost  $30.00  up  indefinitely;  Wiltons, 
6'x9'  cost  $22.00  up;  9'xi6'  cost  $36.00  up. 

The  prices  given  are  not  exact  for  all  times  and 
places,  of  course,  but  may  serve  as  an  indication  of 
relative  costs. 


524 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

PART    II 


Read  Carefully.  Place  your  name  and  address  on  the 
first  sheet  of  the  test.  Use  a  light  grade  of  paper  and  write 
on  one  side  of  the  sheet  only.  L/eave  space  between  an- 
swers. Read  the  lesson  paper  a  number  of  times  before 
answering-  the  questions.  Answer  fully. 


1.  What  is  the  value  of  system  in  house  work? 

2.  Outline  in  detail  a  system  for  the  household  with 

which  you  are  most  familiar. 

3.  Judging  from  your  own  experience,  how  long 

should  it  take  to  perform  the  daily  tasks  of 
house  work,  such  as  dusting  the  living  room, 
washing  the  dinner  dishes,  sweeping  a  bed 
room,  etc? 

4.  If  you  have  employed  servants,  have  you  met 

with  satisfactory  results? 

5.  If  so,  what  do  you  regard  as  the  causes  of  your 

success  ? 

6.  Have  you  made  any  observations  in  general,  of 

aid  in  the  study  of  domestic  service  problems? 

7.  Do  you  know  of  any  efforts  among  women  to 

correct  the  situation,  either  as  steps  toward 
solution,  or  study  of  the  situation? 

8.  What  is  your  attitude  toward  non-resident  labor 

in  the  home? 


525 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

9.  Taking  into  account  fuel,  supplies,  and  your  own 
time  and  labor,  what  can  you  say  of  the  rela- 
tive cost  and  results  of  laundry  work  done  in 
and  outside  the  house? 

10.  What  constitutes  a  legitimate  bargain  ? 

11.  What    elements    aid    the    flourishing    "bargain'* 

counters  of  our  stores? 

12.  What  has  been  your  experience  in  buying  as  to 

"the  best  is  the  cheapest?" 

13.  Give  a  list  of  what  you  regard  as  ten  real  and 

profitable  conveniences  in  kitchen   furnishing. 

14.  Give  a  similar  list  of  uneconomical  articles,  be- 

cause rarely  used  or  not  as  useful  as  supposed 
when  purchased. 

15.  What  kinds  of  linen  are  there? 

16.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of 

rugs?    Of  carpets? 

17.  Add  any  suggestions  arising  from  the  study  of 

this  section. 
N''>te.— After  completing  the  test,  sign  your  full  name. 


$26 


HOUSEHOLD    MANAGEMENT 

PART  III 


MARKETING 

A  practical  knowledge  of  marketing  on  the  part 
of  the  housewife  affects  to  a  marked  degree  both  the 
comfort  and  expense-book  of  the  family.  Intelligence 
and  skill  in  buying  are  only  secured  by  careful  prac- 
tice. The  purchaser  must  not  fear  to  ask  questions. 
Most  men  with  whom  she  will  have  to  deal  will  be 
found  to  be  patient,  helpful,  painstaking  and  reliable, 
yet  she  must  make  sure  by  sufficient  trials  that  the 
cuts  of  meat,  etc.,  recommended  are,  all  things  con- 
sidered, those  that  are  best  adapted  to  meet  the  needs 
of  her  family. 

It  is  usually  greatly  to  one's  advantage  to  select  a 
regular  place  for  marketing.  Greater  consideration  is 
shown  such  customers  and  better  satisfaction  results. 
Time  is  saved,  and  usually  it  proves  to  be  quite  a? 
economical,  often  more  so.  Disappointments  are  les? 
liable  to  occur  than  in  buying  more  generally. 

The  fact  of  buying  regularly  at  the  same  place 
should  not,  however,  lead  to  the  erroneous  idea  that 
a  telephone  may  be  substituted  for  frequent  visits  to 
the  market.  This  is  a  mistake  which  is  increasing 
rapidly  in  America.  Orders  given  in  this  way,  by  note, 

127 


Buying 


Regular 
Customers 


Use  of 

Telephone 


527 


128  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

or  to  the  driver  at  the  door  are  liable  to  be  less 
satisfactory  than  those  which  are  given  at  the  store 
where  selection  can  be  made  by  the  purchaser. 
The  telephone  may  be  resorted  to  occasionally 
in  emergencies,  but  should  not  take  the  place  of  regu- 
lar visits.  The  greater  satisfaction  to  be  secured 
through  personal  selection,  the  greater  variety  secured 
by  seeing  otherwise  unthought-of  articles  and  the 
closer  economy  possible  more  than  offset  the  additional 
time  consumed. 

Reasonable  More  than  a  single  day's  order  may  be  given  at  a 
time.  All  orders  needing  prompt  rilling,  as  meats  and 
vegetables,  should  be  given  in  ample  season,  usually 
the  day  before,  so  that  there  may  be  sufficient  time  to 
1  fill  the  order  without  discomfort  to  those  who  serve. 
This  is  only  reasonable  consideration  for  others,  be- 
sides securing  for  one's  self  the  avoidance  of  disap- 
pointments which  are  very  apt  to  occur  when  too 
limited  time  is  allowed  in  rilling  the  order.  It  is  evi- 
dence of  an  inexcusable  lack  of  foresight  when  a 
housewife  plans  so  little  beyond  the  immediate  need 
as  to  leave  the  ordering  of  roast  beef  for  a  twelve- 
o'clock  dinner  until  10  o'clock  of  the  morning  it  is 
desired. 

supply  Meats  are,  perhaps,  the  most  difficult  to  understand 
and  to  buy  to  advantage.  A  few  years  ago  the  sup- 
ply of  meats  was  practically  all  local,  but  at  the  present 
time  only  veal  and  lamb  are  supplied  locally  in  places 
of  any  considerable  size.  The  supply  of  beef  and  pork 


528 


BEEF  129 

for  the  United  States  is  almost  wholly  from  the  West, 
Chicago  being  the  chief  center,  especially  for  the 
wholesale  beef  trade.  Some  of  the  objections  raised 
by  those  who  oppose  the  consumption  of  meat  because 
of  supposed  unwholesome  and  unsanitary  conditions 
of  killing,  storing  and  transporting,  are  practically 
without  foundation  at  the  present  time.  Conditions 
have  been  greatly  improved  within  the  last  few  years 
and  great  sanitary  precautions  are  exercised.  The 
large  houses  of  Chicago  are  rendered  thoroughly  sani- 
tary and  are  carefully  inspected  by  United  States  of- 
ficers who  also  inspect  every  animal  killed,  and  tag  the 
meat  for  shipping.  Each  quarter  is  numbered,  the 
car  in  which  it  is  shipped  is  also  numbered  and  a  rec- 
ord made  of  the  meat  sent.  In  this  way  any  com- 
plaints can  be  readily  traced.  The  transportation  is 
now  done  by  the  use  of  refrigerator  cars. 


The  quality  of  beef  depends  upon  several  conditions.  Quality 
The  age  of  the  animal  when  killed,  the  breed,  the  man- 
ner of  fattening,  the  amount  of  exercise  and  the  length 
of  time  the  beef  is  allowed  to  cure  before  using,  all  ef- 
fect the  quality  of  the  meat  to  a"  marked  degree.  The 
"prime"  age  of  an  animal  for  killing  is  4  years,  but 
the  beef  of  a  creature  from  4  to  8  years  of  age  is 
good.  Beyond  that  age  meat  is  apt  to  be  tough  and 
unsatisfactory.  Although  grass-fed  animals  are 
healthier  than  stall-fed,  the  latter  is  customary,  or,  at 


529 


130 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


Texture 
and 


Position 
of  Bones 


least,  a  combination  of  the  two.  Exercise  toughens 
the  muscles  but  if  moderate,  is  considered  desirable  in 
rendering  an  animal  healthier  and  the  meat  finer  fla- 
vored. Beef  has  the  finest  flavor  and  is  most  tender 
when  kept  as  long^  as  possible  before  using.  Three 
weeks  is  usually  the  shortest  time  allowed  for  this 
curing  when  conditions  of  storage  are  such  as  to  per- 
mit. 

Meat  should  be  selected  which  is  firm  and  fine- 
grained.  The  color  should  be  bright  red,  the  fat  yel- 
lowish white.  The  flesh  and  fat  of  old  beef  is  darker, 
dry  and  coarser.  Beef  becomes  dark  through  stand- 
ing exposed  to  the  air.  One  should  distinguish  care- 
fully between  a  mere  surface  discoloration  which  may 
be  trimmed  off  and  the  rest  of  the  cut  found  to  be  en- 
tirely fresh  and  suitable  to  use,  and  the  decomposition 
which  gives  a  taint  to  the  entire  piece. 

In  buying,  economy  demands  in  general,  that  the 
amount  of  bone  in  a  cut  should  be  small  in  proportion 
to  the  amount  of  meat.  In  order  to  buy  wisely  and 
successfully  it  is  necessary  to  have  in  mind  a  clear 
idea  of  the  anatomy  of  the  animal,  also  the  muscle- 
fibre  arrangement.  These  are  seen  in  the  beef  in 
the  illustrations.  The  vertebrae  making  up  the  back- 
bone differ  sufficiently  so  that  with  study  one  may 
recognize  the  different  ones  in  the  cuts  of  meat.  The 
backbone  is  split  in  dividing  the  body  into  halves  so 
that  but  one-half  will  be  found  in  a  joint  of  meat 
Study  the  illustrations  carefully. 


530 


BEEF 


SKELETON  OF  BEEF. 

!,  Neck;  2,  Six  Chuck  Ribs;  3,  Seven  Prime  Ribs  and  Loin;  4,  Thick  or 

Hip  Sirloin;  5a,  Top  of  Rump;  6a,  Aitch  Bone  or  Rump  Piece; 

6,  Cartilage;  c,  Shoulder  Blade;  d,  Cross  Ribs. 


MUSCLE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  BSEF. 

1,  Head;  2,  Neck;  3,  Chuck  Ribs  and  Shoulder  Blade;  4,  Seven  Prime 

Ribs;  5,  Loin;  6,  Thick  Sirloin,  called  Boneless  Sirloin  in  Chicago, 

Back  of  Rump  in  Boston ;  7-8,  Rump  Piece  in  New  York ;  8,  Aitch 

Bone;  9,  Round;  10,  Leg;  a,  Top  of  Sirloin;  b,  Flank; 

c,  Plate ;  d,  Brisket.     (Redrawn  from  Home 

Economics  by  Miria  Parloa.) 


531 


132 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


Arrangement 
of  Muscles 


Carving 


A  knowledge  of  the  muscle  fibres  and  their  arrange- 
ments is  as  important  in  buying,  cooking  and  carving 
meat  as  familiarity  with  the  location  of  the  bones. 
The  lean  of  meat  is  made  up  of  muscular  tissue.  This 
consists  of  prism-shaped  bundles,  divisible  under  the 
microscope  into  minute  tubes  or  muscle  fibres.  These 
fibres  are  held  together  in  bundles  by  connective  tissue 
which  is  readily  distinguished  by 
holding  up  a  loosely  connected 
piece  of  meat  and  noting  the  thin, 
filmy  membrane.  When  meat  is 
cut  "across  the  grain"  these  bundles 
of  fibres  are  severed  and  the  ends 
appear.  The  membrane  forming 
the  walls  of  these  tubes  is  very  deli- 
cate and  elastic. 

Carving  has  a  great  effect  upon 
the  apparent  toughness  of  the  cut 
of  meat.  In  the  accompanying  il- 
lustration, a  shows  the  muscular 
bundle,  a  fibre  partially  separated  into  its  minute  tubes, 
while  b  shows  the  fibre  cut  across  the  grain  as  it  should 
be  in  carving.  In  this  way  the  fibres  are  broken  into 
smaller  pieces  as  an  aid  to  digestion  and  the  contents 
of  the  tubes  are  set  free,  thus  being  more  accessible 
for  the  digestive  juices  than  when  the  meat  is  carved 
lengthwise  of  the  fibres. 


Fibres  of  Meat. 


532 


BEEF 


133 


In  cutting  up  a  beef 
the  body  is  first  cut 
through  the  backbone 
laying  it  open  in  "sides" 
or  halves.  Each  half  is 
then  divided  into  quarters, 
called  the  fore  quarter 
and  the  hind  quarter,  as 
will  be  seen  in  the  illus- 
tration. The  muscle  fibres 
run  very  irregularly  in 
the  fore  quarter.  This,  to- 
gether with  the  fact  that 
they  are  coarser  and  have 
on  the  whole  more  exer- 
cise than  those  of  the  hind 
quarter  to  toughen  them, 
renders  the  meat  of  the 
fore  quarter  of  a  less  de- 
sirable, cheaper  grade. 
The  finest  cuts  of  an  ani- 
mal come  from  the  middle 
of  .the  creature,  in  the 
most  protected,  least  ex- 
ercised parts,  decreasing 
in  value  as  they  lie  to- 
ward either  extremity. 
Cuts  differ  somewhat  in  different  cities.  According  to 
the  Boston  cut,  for  instance,  three  ribs  are  left  on  the 


Cutting 


SIDE  OF  BEEF. 
aa,  Suet;  6,  Thin  End  of  Tender- 
loin; ad,  Thick  End  of  Tenderloin; 
e,  Inside  or  Top  of  Round ;  /,  Best 
Part  of   Round;   g,  Sternum; 
h,  Thick  Brisket;   i,    Thin 
Brisket;  j,  Flank. 


533 


134 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


hind  quarter,  ten  on  the  fore  quarter.  In  New  York 
all  the  ribs  are  cut  on  the  fore  quarter.  Beef  is  best 
from  a  creature  weighing  800  to  900  pounds. 


CUTS  OP  BEEF  ACCORDING  TO  THE  U.  S.  DEPARTMENT 
OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Fore  Quarter 

Weight         An  average  fore  quarter  weighs  about  200  pounds. 
It  is  divided  into  : 

1.  Neck. 

2.  Chuck. 

3.  Ribs. 

4.  Sticking  piece. 

5.  End  of  ribs.  )  Sometimes  called  together 

6.  Brisket.          \  Rattleran. 

7.  Shin  or  shank. 

The  fore  quarter  as  a  whole  being  coarser  is  used 
chiefly  for  canned  meat,  stews,  soup  meat  and  corned 


534 


cond  Cut 
round 


BEEF  135 

beef.    The  neck  is  best  used  for  mince  meat.     Prices 
on  all  meats  differ  too  widely  to  make  it  possible  to 
state  with  accuracy  for  all 
places,  but  that  we  may  be 
guided  somewhat  by  price 
in  estimating  values,  aver- 
age  prices   will   be   given. 
For  this  cut  8  cents  a  pound 
is  an  average  price. 

The  Chuck  lies  just  be- 
hind the  neck,  including  the 
first  five  ribs.  This  cut  may 
be  used  in  a  variety  of 
ways,  as  cheap  steak,  roast, 
pot  roast  or  stew.  Several 
of  the  cheaper  cuts  indi- 
cated as  possible  roasts  or 
steak  cuts  were  formerly 
used  much  more  commonly 
than  now  for  such  pur- 
poses. As  our  country  has 
grown  more  prosperous 
there  has  been  a  great  in- 
crease in  the  demand  for 

the  better  cuts  until  many  markets  are  forced  to  buy 
extra  loins,  etc.,  to  meet  the  demand.  A  very  fair 
small  one  rib  roast  may  be  cut  from  this  portion.  The 
chuck  sells  for  about  12  1-2  cents  a  pound. 

The  Ribs  are  used  chiefly  for  roasts  and  constitute 
the  best  of  the  fore  quarter.    The  portion  lying  nearest 


SIDE  OF  BEEF,   U.   S.  DEPT 
AGRICULTURE. 


The  Neck 


The  Chuck 


The  Ribs 


535 


136 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


First  Cut 
of  the  Ribs 


Sticking 
Piece 


End  of 
the  Ribs 


the  hind  quarter  is  very  nearly  the  same  in  quality. 
There  is  a  decided  preference  in  the  rib  roasts.  The 
"first  cut  of  the  ribs,"  as  it  is  called  contains  the  first 
two  or  three  ribs  from  the  hind  quarter,  differing  ac- 
cording- to  the  size  of  roast  desired.  Cut  long,  that  is 
with  the  thin  end  pieces  left  on,  such  a  roast  brings 
as  high  as  17  to  23  cents  a  pound,  while  "cut  short," 
that  is  with  the  thin  rib  ends  removed,  it  sells  in  some 
places  as  high  as  20  to  30  cents  a  pound.  Following 
this  cut  are  the  second  and  third  cuts,  the  third  join- 
ing the  first  cut  of  the  chuck.  These  are  not  as  high 
in  quality  or  price,  15  to  18  cents  a  pound.  The  sec- 
ond cut  is  a  very  good  roast. 

The  Sticking  Piece  is  a  cut  between  the  neck  and 
brisket,  so  called  from  the  custom  of  bleeding  there 
after  killing.  Although  the  fibre  is  coarse  and  tough 
in  this  piece  it  is  an  excellent  piece  when  properly 
used.  It  is  especially  fine  for  beef  tea,  since  for  that, 
one  should  select  as  juicy  a  piece  as  possible.  From 
the  method  of  bleeding  much  blood  collects  in  this 
piece  and  it  is  particularly  juicy.  It  may  be  used  for 
stews  also  where  long,  slow  cooking  renders  the  mus- 
cle fibre  tender  and  sets  free  a  portion  of  the  rich 
juices. 

The  End  of  the  Ribs  is  often  called  the  plate  piece 
or  rattleran.  Although  this  portion  has  a  liberal  sup- 
ply of  bones  they  are  thin,  and  generous  allowance 
is  made  for  that  fact  in  the  price.  It  is  an  especially 
desirable  piece  for  corned  beef  if  it  is  to  be  pressed 


536 


BEEF  137 

and  served  cold,  as  it  has  a  good  supply  of  fat  blended 
with  the  lean  and  hardens  to  cut  well. 

The  Brisket  is  much  preferred  for  corned  beef  by  The 
some.  It  is  a  more  solidly  lean  piece  on  the  whole, 
thus  carving  better  when  hot.  It  is  to  a  large  extent 
a  matter  of  choice  as  regards  the  amount  of  fat  de- 
sired. There  is  a  difference  recognized  at  markets  be- 
tween the  thick  end  of  the  brisket,  called  "fancy 
brisket,"  and  the  thinner  end,  the  former  being  con- 
sidered superior.  The  brisket  corned  brings  as  high 
as  15  cents  a  pound  where  there  is  good  demand,  while 
the  rib  piece  is  not  over  8  cents,  sometimes  as  low  as 
6  cents. 

The  Shin  is  used  for  soup  meat.  It  is  divided  into  The  shin 
three  pieces,  more  meat  being  found  on  the  upper 
piece.  Many  make  a  great  mistake  in  throwing  away 
the  smallest,  most  bony  part  supposing  it  to  be  value- 
less, which  is  far  from  true.  It  is  rich  in  gelatin  and 
those  properties  which  are  desired  in  soup  stock.  The 
shin  usually  sells  for  not  over  5  cents  a  pound. 

The  Hind  Quarter 

While  there  is  a  great  variety  in  the  possible  cuts  of      Cutg 
the  hind  quarter  they  may  be  classed  in  general  as 
follows : 

1.  Loin.  4.     Shin. 

2.  Rump.  5.     Flank. 

3.  Round. 


537 


138 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


Sirloin 


Tenderloin 


Fillet 


The  location  of  these  sections  will  be  seen  by  con- 
sulting page  135.  The  entire  loin  is  frequently  called 
the  "sirloin."  The  choicest  steaks  and  roasts  are  cut 
from  this  part.  The  first  two  slices  from  the  end 
where  the  loin  joins  the  ribs  are  called  the  first  cuts  of 
the  sirloin.  These  are  not  as  tender  or  desirable  as 
those  which  follow.  After  these  are  removed,  the 
tenderloin  begins  to  appear  which  lies  on  the  under  or 
inside  of  the  loin  and  being  so  protected  is  very  tender. 
The  slices  which  include  the  largest  portions  of 
tenderloin  are  considered  the  best  and  bring  the  high- 
est price.  Some  of  these  slices  when  trimmed  bring 
as  high  as  35  or  40  cents  a  pound. 

It  would  seem  that  the  tenderloin  is  greatly  over- 
rated in  some  instances,  since,  except  for  the  fact 
of  its  being  especially  tender,  it  is  not  more  desirable*. 
It  is  not  as  rich  in  juices  or  flavor  as  the  rest  of  the 
loin.  The  entire  tenderloin  is  used  for  what  is  known 
as  a  "fillet."  When  removed  and  sold  separately  for 
this  purpose  it  costs  as  high  as  60  cents  to  $1.00  a 
pound  since  the  remainder  of  the  loin  is  rendered 
thereby  far  less  salable.  On  the  other  hand,  for  one 
who  wishes  a  delicious  roast  at  moderate  expense  this 
loin  with  the  tenderloin  removed  is  very  desirable. 

In  buying  for  a  fillet  roast  it  is  far  the  wisest  plan  to 
buy  the  entire  loin  or  section  necessary  to  give  the  size 
desired,  at  35  cents  a  pound,  have  the  tenderloin  re- 
moved for  the  fillet  roast  and  the  rest  reserved  for 
other  uses,  as  steaks  or  later  roasts.  The  thinner  end 


538 


BEEF  139 

of  the  tenderloin  which  extends  into  the  rump  is% 
cheaper,  about  35  cents  a  pound.  Some  cheaper  fillets 
are  sometimes  to  be  found  in  the  markets  but  are  not 
desirable,  as  they  are  from  inferior  beef. 

The  Rump  lies  back  of  the  loin.  As  a  whole  it 
weighs  about  52  pounds.  It  is  divided  into  three  sec- 
tions, known  as  back,  middle  cut  and  face.  This  por- 
tion is  sometimes  called  hip  or  thick  sirloin.  It  may 
be  used  for  steaks  or  roasts,  while  some  of  the  less  de- 
sirable parts  are  used  for  pot  roasts,  braising,  etc. 
The  part  nearest  the  loin  is  termed  the  back;  it  is 
the  best  part  for  all  uses  except  for  steaks.  Next  to 
that,  the  middle,  the  face  having  more  muscle. 

A  cut  from  the  rump  which  is  excellent  for  a  variety  Aitch 
of  uses  in  the  Aitch  bone.  It  is  satisfactory  for  a  cheap 
roast,  braising  and  the  like.  It  weighs  about  six 
pounds  usually  and  may  be  bought  for  7  to  12  cents  a 
pound.  There  is  not  enough  bone  included  to  offset 
the  difference  between  this  price  and  the  25  cents  a 
pound  which  portions  of  the  rump  may  bring,  as  the 
middle  cut.  The  face  makes  a  good  piece  for  corning. 

The  Round  is  divided  into  top  and  bottom,  so  called      The 

Round 

because  of  the  way  in  which  the  leg  is  laid  upon  the 
block  to  be  cut  up.  The  outside,  being  laid  down,  is 
called  the  bottom  round,  while  the  inside,  being  on 
the  top  as  it  is  laid  down  is  called  the  top  round.  The 
difference  in  quality  to  be  found  between -the  two 
divisions  is  what  would  be  expected  from  the  rule 
stated  earlier  concerning  the  greater  toughness  of  the 


539 


140  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

"more  exposed  and  exercised  parts  of  the  animal.  The 
bottom  of  the  round  being  nearest  the  skin  is  the 
tougher  and  cheaper  meat.  The  top  round  is  used  for 
a  very  fair  quality  of  steak.  The  bottom  round  is 
better  for  braising,  stews,  etc.  A  vein  divides  the  two 
sections  so  that  it  is  easy  to  separate  them.  The  top 
may  bring  22  to  25  cents  a  pound,  while  the  poorest 
parts  may  be  secured  for  12  1-2  cents. 
Shin  The  Shank  or  Shin  is  used  as  that  of  the  fore 
Flank  quarter,  for  soup.  The  Flank  is  usually  corned,  sell- 
ing for  7  to  10  cents  a  pound.  It  is  a  thin  piece  and 
has  a  good  mixture  of  fat. 

Summary  of  Cuts  of  Beef 

Passing  over  the  various  cuts  of  beef  in  review,  then, 
we  may  consider  the  cuts  most  desirable  for  the  dif- 
ferent methods  of  cooking  which  we  employ  in  the 
order  of  their  desirability,   regardless   of  cost, 
small          The  selection  of  a  roast  of  meat  for  a  small  family 

Roasts  .  f  J 

is  the  most  difficult,  since  the  larger  the  roast  the  bet- 
ter. Nothing  smaller  than  a  two-rib  roast  is  very  sat- 
isfactory to  attempt  to  roast.  Unless  one  is  willing 
to  roast  less  thoroughly  the  first  day  and  reroast  the 
second,  or  is  willing  to  serve  cold  roast,  the  selection 
is  very  much  limited.  For  such  a  family  a  rump  fillet 
or  Aitch  bone  is,  perhaps,  most  satisfactory.  The  finest 
larger  roasts  are  to  be  obtained  from  the  first  three 
cuts  of  the  sirloin,  and  next  to  these  the  first  cut  of 
the  ribs.  Following  these  are  the  second  and  third 


540 


BEEF 


141 


cuts  of  the  ribs,  the  back  of  the  rump  and  a  chuck 
roast.  A  rib-roll  is  a  roast  prepared  by  removing  the 
bones,  rolling  and  tying.  It  is  thus  made  easier  to 
carve.  If  one  has  a  roast  prepared  in  this  way,  she 
should  have  the  bones  sent  home  to  be  used  in  the 
soup  kettle. 

There  is  little  to  be  said  in  addition  concerning  the 
selection  of  cuts  for  steak,  since  in  general  meat  that  is 
especially  desirable  for  roasts  is  equally  good  for  slic- 
ing for  steaks.  The  best  is  especially  desirable  here, 
since  there  is  less  opportunity  to  practice  skill  in  cook- 
ing, which  in  other  modes  of  preparing  may  avail 
greatly  to  improve  an  otherwise  undesirable  piece.  It 
is  not  as  pleasing  to  the  majority  of  people  to  have 
meat  served  as  steak  unless  it  be  fairly  tender  and 
juicy.  In  the  main  it  is  more  satisfactory  to  those 
who  should,  economize  closely  to  rely  upon  other  cuts, 
buying  an  occasional  good  steak  for  variety  and  espe- 
cial luxury. 

While  it  is  true  that  the  better  the  piece  of  meat 
the  better  the  result  as  a  general  thing,  it  is  possible 
and  desirable  to  save  expense  to  some  extent  where 
it  may  be  done  without  serious  loss.  The  meat  to  be 
cut  for  Hamburg  steak  need  not  be  of  the  best,  since 
it  is  rendered  more  digestable  by  the  mincing.  The 
top  of  the  round  is  quite  good  enough,  while  the  bot- 
tom round  or  even  the  shoulder  and  flank  are  used,  al- 
though less  satisfactorily. 

The  top  of  the  round,  eighth  to  the  thirteenth  ribs, 
first  cut  of  chuck,  the  cheaper  of  the  rump  cuts,  the 


Selection 
of  Steaks 


Cheaper 
Cuts 


541 


142  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

flank  and  leg  may  all  be  used  for  braising  or  pot  roasts. 
By  this  method  of  cooking  much  is  done  to  soften 
tough  pieces,  rendering  them  more  digestible  and  ac- 
ceptable, so  that  the  cheaper  cuts  are  made  very  palata- 
ble in  the  hands  of  a  skillful  cook. 

Corned  The  order  of  preference  for  corned  beef  might  be, 
brisket,  rump,  piece  from  the  chuck,  plate,  shoulder. 
Others  would  select  the  shoulder  or  chuck  first  for  the 
reasons  already  mentioned.  The  flank  is  sometimes 
corned,  but  it  is  not  considered  a  wise  choice  since  it 
is  not  well  protected  by  fat  or  bone  as  meat  for  corn- 
ing should  be  to  prevent  the  loss  of  the  juices  in  the 
process  of  corning. . 

Cuts  for  For  stews  it  is  desirable  to  extract  some  or  all  the 
juices  from  the  meat/  The  meat  is  finely  divided  be- 
fore cooking  and  the  methods  applied  are  those  of 
slow,  long  cooking.  The  flank,  leg  and  sticking  piece 
are  found  to  be  very  good  for  these  purposes.  Thus 
we  find  that  all  the  animal  may  be  used  to  good  pur- 
pose in  one  or  another  of  the  ways  indicated.  The 
family  that  lives  in  the  country  and  raises  and  provides 
its  own  supply  finds  it  necessary  to  utilize  all  the  parts. 
Those  that  depend  on  city  markets  are  more  ignorant 
of  the  different  cuts  and  are  as  a  result  inclined  to  be 
•much  more  extravagant,  not  having  as  wide  experi- 
ence in  learning  to  prepare  the  cheaper  cuts  in  an  ac- 
ceptable way. 

Beef          Beef  Heart  is  an  economical  and  palatable  meat.     It 
is  solid,  and  a  good  sized  heart  will  serve   fourteen 


542 


BEEF  145 

people.  There  is  nothing  to  be  feared  in  having  some 
left,  as  it  is  even  better  to  serve  cold  for- a  breakfast  or 
supper  dish  than  when  hot.  The  most  satisfactory  way 
of  cooking  is  to  boil  it  three  or  four  hours,  cool,  clean 
of  coagulated  blood,  stuff  and  bake  slowly  for  three 
hours.  It  may  be  braised  or  stewed.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  inexpensive  meats,  costing  not  over  5  cents  a 
pound  usually. 

One  should  be  very  careful  in  using  liver  to  deter-  Liver 
mine  that  it  is  in  a  healthy  condition,  as  it  is  an  organ 
which  is  not  infrequently  diseased.  It  should  be  clear, 
smooth  and  without  spots.  Spots  and  streaks  indicate 
a  dangerous  condition.  Calf's  liver  is  usually  preferred 
as  more  tender  and  delicate,  but  the  liver  from  good 
beef  is  cheaper  and  satisfactory.  There  is  a  great  dif- 
ference in  it,  some  being  hard  and  tough.  Pig's  is 
preferred  by  some.  Calf's  bring  from  16  to  20  cents  a 
pound,  while  beef's  may  be  procured  at  from  8  to  10 
cents. 

Kidneys  are  cooked  by  some,  although  not  as  €x-  Kidneys 
tensively  as  the  organs  already  mentioned.  They  may 
be  stewed  or  braised.  Care  should  be  used  in  select- 
ing, as  in  liver.  Calf's  are  preferred,  next  lamb's, 
mutton  and  beef.  Those  weighing"  from  one  to  two 
pounds  may  be  bought  for  8  cents  each. 

In   selecting  a  tongue  for  cooking  one   should  be      Tongue 
chosen  which  is  firm  and  thick,  with  plenty  of  fat,  as 
the  lean  and  flabby  ones  do  not  cook  satisfactorily. 
Those  of  all  animals  are  used,  the  beef  more  often,  be- 
cause of  its  size.    They  may  be  bought  fresh,  smoked 


543 


J44 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


Tripe 


Sweetbreads 


or    corned.    Tongues    weighing    from     four    to    six 
pounds  may  be  bought  at  from  16  to  18  cents  a  pound. 

Tripe  is  taken  from  the  lining  of  the  stomach  of 
the  animal.  It  is  sold  either  simply  cleaned  or  pickled. 
The  honey-comb  is  the  better.  It  is  white  and  tender 
when  taken  from  a  healthy  animal.  The  honey-comb 
costs  about  10  cent  a  pound;  the  plain  is  a  little 
cheaper.  The  cost  of  many  of  these  things  depends  al- 
most wholly  upon  the  demand  for  them. 

Sweetbreads  consist  of  the  pancreas  and  thymus 
glands  of  the  young  calf  or  lamb  which  later  in  its 
life  are  absorbed  or  changed  so  as  not  to  be  edible. 
Those  from  a  milk-fed  animal  are  far  superior,  being 
white,  firm  and  plump,  while  those  from  an  improperly 
fed  animal  are  dark,  flabby  and  tough.  They  are 
generally  sold  in  pairs.  The  pancreas  is  larger  and 
better.  They  range  from  25  or  35  cents  to  50  or  75 
cents  a  pair.  What  are  known  as  Chicago  sweetbreads 
may  be  bought  in  Eastern  markets  at  times  for  $1.50 
a  dozen.  These  are  packed  on  ice.  Where  the  de- 
mand for  sweetbreads  is  great,  pork  sweetbreads  are 
often  substituted.  These  are  coarse  and  dark  colored. 
The  buyer  should  learn  to  distinguish  these  from 
calves'  sweetbreads  and  refuse  them. 


544 


BEEF  145 

Table  of  Cuts  and  Uses  of  Fore  and  Hind  Quarters  of  Beef 

FORE  QUARTERS. 

4  Ribs Good  roast. 

6  Ch?ick  Ribs Small  steaks,  pot  roast,  stews. 

Neck Cheap  Hamburg  steak,  mince  meat. 

Sticking-Piece Mince  meat,  beef  tea,  stews. 

(  Thick  end    \ 

Rattle  Rand  \  Second  cut  V Corned,  especially  cold  sliced. 

( Thin  end      ' 

i  Navel  end          \ 
Brisket  \  Butt  end  or       v -Excellent  for  Corning.    Perhaps  best. 

I  Fancy  Brisket ' 
Fore-shin Soup  stock,  stews. 

HIND   QUARTERS. 

3  Ribs '. Excellent  roast. 

/  Tip Finest  roast,  steaks. 

Loin  ]  Middle Sirloin  and  porter  house  steak. 

( First  cut Roast  and  steaks. 

Tenderloin  \\  ..  Larded  and  roasted,  or  broiled, 

I  otiGctKS 

fBack Best  large  roasts  and  cross-cut  steaks. 

Rumt)  J  Middle Roasts. 

I  Face Inferior  roasts  and  stews. 

L  Aitch  Bone Cheap  roast,  corned,  braised 

Round  $  Top Steaks,  excellent  for  beef  tea. 

I  Bottom Hamburg  steak,  curry  of  beef. 

Flank Stuffed,  rolled  and  braised  or  corned, 

Shin  or  Shank Cheap  stews  or  soup  stock. 


545 


VEAL 


Season 
of  Veal 


Bob  Veal 


While  veal  is  in  season  all  the  year  in  many  markets, 
it  is  best  in  spring  and  summer,  being  at  its  prime  in 
May.  The  quality  of  the  veal  depends  to  a  considera- 
ble extent  upon  the  age  and  manner  of  feeding.  Six 


CUTS  OF  VEAL  ACCORDING  TO  THE  U.  S.  DEPARTMENT 
OF  AGRICULTURE. 

to  ten  weeks  is  the  preferable  age  at  the  time  of  kill- 
ing. When  the  calf  is  killed  under  four  weeks  of  age 
the  meat  is  injurious,  so  that  it  is  not  allowed  to  be 
sold,  such  being  known  as  "bob  veal."  The  flesh  of 
such  immature  calves  is  soft,  flabby  and  gelatinous, 
blue  and  watery  in  color  instead  of  fine-grained,  tender 
and  white  with  a  tendency  to  pink,  as  in  the  healthy 
meat.  The  meat  is  best  of  calves  which  have  been  fed 
entirely  upon  milk.  Grass-feeding  is  the  poorest  of  all. 

146 


546 


VEAL 


147 


ahonK 


In  France  an  especially  fine  quality  is  secured  by  care- 
ful feeding,  raw  eggs  being  included  in  the  feed. 

The  cuts  of  veal  are  similar  to  those  of  beef,  except  Cuts 
simpler.  The  fore  quarter  includes  only  five  ribs  and  to  Beef 
is  so  small  that  it  is  easily 
boned  and  rolled  for  a  good 
sized  roast.  The  entire  fore 
quarter  weighs  6  to  12 
pounds,  and  costs  8  to  10 
cents  entire  or  with  neck 
removed  10  to  14  cents. 
The  neck  can  be  used  for 
stew.  The  head  and  brains 
are  esteemed  by  many,  the 
head  being  used  for  soup, 
and  the  brains  cooked  in 
various  ways. 

The  loin  includes  all  that 
is  divided  into  loin  and 
rump  in  the  beef.  This  is 
an  excellent  roast,  the  leg 
alone  being  considered  bet- 
ter. The  leg  is  the  choicest 
for  roasts  or  for  cutlets. 
The  shoulder  when  boned, 
rolled  and  stuffed  makes  a 
veal  roast.  The  breast  is 


very    acceptable    cheap 
good    for    stew.     The 


"knuckle"  of  veal  corresponds  to  the  shin  in  the  beef 
and  is  especially  fine  for  soup,  being  highly  gelatinous. 


547 


MUTTON  AND  LAMB 


Mutton  is,  for  most,  a  most  nutritious  and  easily 
digested  meat  when  of  good  quality  and  properly  pre- 
pared, but  it  may.  be  very  uninviting  through  careless- 
ness in  cooking  and  serving.  For  this  reason,  no 


CUTS  OF  LAMB,  U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OP  AGRICULTURE. 

doubt,  it  is  less  in  favor  in  this '  country  than  beef. 
Lamb  is  the  name  applied  to  the  animal  until  one  year 
old,  after  that  it  is  properly  mutton.  The  age  is  told 
by  the  bone  of  the  fore  leg,  being  smooth  in  the  young 
animal  but  showing  ridges  which  grow  deeper  and 
deeper  with  age.  Mutton  and  lamb  are  in  season  the 
year  round.  The  best  mutton  is  from  an  animal  not 
over  5  years  old,  plump  with  small  bones.  Like  the 
beef  long  curing  before  consumption  is  desirable. 

148 


548 


MUTTON  AND  LAMB 


149 


The  usual  cuts  of  mutton  are  the  leg,  loin,  shoulder, 
neck,  breast  and  flank.  The  leg  is,  all  things  consid- 
ered, the  best  roast.  The  fore  quarter,  or  the  shoulder 
boned  and  rolled  as  in  veal,  is  an  excellent  cheap 
roast,  the  choice  depending  on 
the  size  of  the  family.  The  ribs 
and  loin  may  be  used  for  roasts 
for  a  small  family,  but  are  more 
frequently  cut  into  chops.  The 
rib  chops  are  smallest  and,  there- 
fore, more  expensive.  They 
must,  in  fact,  be  regarded  as  a 
great  luxury,  considering  the 
price  and  the  proportion  of 
bone,  but  they  are  much  in  favor 
for  their  delicious  delicacy  and 
fine  flavor.  The  shoulder,  breast, 
and  best  part  of  the  neck  are 
excellent  for  stews,  pot  pies  or 
for  boiling.  The  portion  of  the 
neck  nearest  the  head  is  tougher 
and  is  best  used  for  broth  for 
which  it  is  especially  desirable, 
being  rich  in  flavor  and  nutriment. 


ho/lde-r 


SIDE  OF  LAM  Bo 


549 


Season 
of  Pork 


PORK 


Pork  is  good  only  in  autumn  and  winter.  A  large 
part  of  the  animal  is  so  fat  that  instead  of  being  sold 
fresh  it  is  salted  and  sold  as  salt  pork.  The  ribs  and 
loin  are  the  most  desirable  fresh  cuts,  being  used  either 


CUTS  OF  PORK,  U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Bacon 


for  roasts  or  chops.  Care  is  needed  to  select  a  whole- 
some piece,  suitable  fresh  pork  having  firm,  clear  and 
white  fat  and  pink  lean,  while  in  the  salted  pork,  one 
should  select  either  a  pinkish  piece  or  one  without 
color,  a  yellow  appearance  not  being  a  good  indica- 
tion. A  thick,  mediumly  fat  piece  of  salt  pork  is  bet- 
ter to  buy  than  the  thin  flank  pieces. 

Bacon  is  secured  by  smoking  the  fat  pork  in  addi- 
tion to  the  salting  process.  It  is  a  most  digestible  form 
of  fat  and  is  enjoyed  by  many  who  do  not  care  for 

150 


550 


POULTRY 


other  forms  of  salt  pork;  It  is  somewhat  more  expen- 
sive, salt  pork  selling  for  n  to  15  cents,  bacon  for  15 
to  1 8  cents  per  pound. 

Sausages  are  made  either  of 
pork  alone,  or  beef  and  pork, 
or  of  veal  and  pork  together. 
Those  sold  in  the  market  are 
usually  put  up  in  skins.  In 
buying  sausage  one  should  be 
especially  careful  to  buy  a  known 
and  approved  brand.  Otherwise 
they  are  an  untrustworthy  form 
of  meat,  as  fragments  of  all 
kinds  are  easily  disposed  of  in 
this  way.  The  price  of  sausage 
varies  from  12  to  20  cents  per 
pound. 

POULTRY 

There  is  perhaps  no  other  kind 
of  meat  in  which  there  is  more 
need  of  skill  and  care  in  select- 
ing than  poultry.  Great  care  is 

necessary  in  handling,  as  the  flesh  easily  becomes 
tainted  or  rendered  unhealthful.  Some  states  allow 
fowl  to  be  kept  for  sale  undrawn.  This  is  not  only  a 
great  menace  to  health,  but  a  thing  no  thoughtful  buyer 
will  desire.  The  excess  price  charged  for  what  are 
called  Philadelphia  Chickens  comes  from  the  method 
of  killing  and  preparing  for  market.  An  improperly 


SIDE  OP  PORK. 


Care  in 
Selecting 


551 


152 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


Method  of 
Plucking 


Tests 


drawn  chicken  is  nearly  as  bad  as  one  sold  undrawn, 
in  some  cases  may  be  even  worse.  The  laws  regulat- 
ing the  sale  of  poultry  in  New  York  state  are  such 
that  in  the  majority  of  cases  chickens  and  turkeys  are 
most  miserably  prepared  for  market. 

The  flavor  of  the  flesh  is  also  affected  by  the  method 
of  plucking,  the  dry  picking  being  much  to  be  pre- 
ferred, although  the  appearance  of  the  fowl  may  be 
less  attractive.  While  scalding  aids  in  removing  the 
feathers  it  also  affects  the  flavor,  so  that  dry-picked 
sell  at  a  higher  price. 

In  young  fowl  and  turkey  the  breast  bone  is  soft, 
bending  readily,  and  the  flesh  is  smooth.  Hairs  over 
the  flesh  are  an  indication  of  age,  pin- feathers  of  a 
young  bird.  The  body  should  be  plump  and  fat.  A 
poor  bird  is  bluish  white,  thin  and  often  too  liberally 
supplied  with. pin-feathers.  Scaly  legs  are  a  further 
indication  of  age,  the  young  having  smooth  legs. 
While  the  preference  is  always  for  chickens,  especially 
for  roasting,  a  good  fowl  may  be  thoroughly  steamed 
before  roasting  and  so  rendered  tender  and  very  ac- 
ceptable. It  is  much  greater  economy  to  buy  fowl 
as  one  secures  far  more  meat  in  proportion  to  bone, 
and  fowl  is  considerably  cheaper.  The  West  has  be- 
come a  large  source  of  our  supply  as  in  meat,  espe- 
cially in  turkeys.  Certain  Eastern  states  like  Ver- 
mont and  Connecticut  have  acquired  in  the  past  an  en- 
viable local  reputation,  but  at  the  present  time  a  large 
part  even  of  the  Eastern  trade  is  in  Western  turkeys, 


552 


FISH  153 

shipped  East  in  refrigerator  cars.  Methods  of  cold 
storage  have  advanced  so  far  that  turkeys  may  be 
kept  a  year  or  more,  but  not  without  losing  in  quality. 

FISH 

Fish  deteriorates  and  becomes  injurious  sooner  than  selecting 
any  other  animal  food.  Great  care  should  be  taken 
to  select  that  which  is  strictly  fresh.  It  is  impossible 
to  transport  it  a  great  distance  and  keep  it  as  fresh 
as  is  necessary  for  health.  For  this  reason  it  is  not 
wise  for  those  who  live  inland  to  rely  upon  this  class 
of  food,  except  such  as  may  be  secured  from  bodies 
of  water  near  home.  Fresh  fish  is  firm,  with  no  evi- 
dence of  discoloration.  Scales  and  eyes  should  be 
bright,  gills  red  and  fins  firm.  One  should  study  the 
comparative  value  of  the  different  varieties,  as  there 
is  great  difference  in  nutritive  worth,  largely  due  to 
the  greater  amount  of  fat  in  some,  such  as  salmon. 

In  general  white  fleshed  fish  has  the  oil  confined  in  Kinds 
the  liver  and  is  therefore  apt  to  be  a  little  more  digesti- 
ble than  the  dark  fleshed  fish  where  the  oil  is  distribu- 
ted throughout  the  body.  Note:  Whitefish,  halibut, 
etc. ;  salmon,  mackerel  and  bluefish.  There  is  a  decided 
difference  in  texture,  firmness  and  price. 

Haddock  is  an  excellent  cheap  fish  for  frying,  be-      Haddock 
ing  firmer  than  cod,    It  is  usually  from  8  to  10  cents  a 
pound.    Halibut  is  the  preference  of  the  more  expen- 
sive, costing  from  14  to  18  cents.    There  is  less  waste 
in  halibut,  as  the  slices  are  from  so  large  a  fish  that 


553 


154 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


Faking 


Boiling 


Local 
Varieties 


the  head  and  tail  are  not  included  as  in  smaller  fish. 
This  should  be  taken  into  account  in  ordering. 

Cod  and  bluefish  are  usually  selected  from  the  cheap 
fish  for  baking.  Haddock  is  also  good.  The  bluefish 
is  preferred  by  most,  being  somewhat  dry  and  of  sweet 
flavor.  It  is  always  to  be  distinguished  by  a  dark 
line  running  along  each  side  from  head  to  tail 
While  cod  and  haddock  are  in  season  throughout  the 
year,  bluefish  are  in  season  only  from  May  to  October 
except  as  they  are  frozen  and  kept  in  cold  storage.  A 
frozen  fish  is  not  as  desirable  as  fresh,  so  that  the  sea- 
son will  govern  choice  somewhat.  Halibut  and  mack- 
erel are  good  to  bake. 

In  selecting  fish  for  boiling  it  is  desirable  to  secure 
a  firm  fish  and  a  solid  piece  which  can  be  wrapped  in 
cheesecloth  and  cooked  without  breaking  in  pieces. 
Halibut  and  salmon  are  especially  good  for  this  pur- 
pose. Haddock  is  the  best  of  the  three  cheaper  fish 
already  mentioned. 

The  fish  already  mentioned  are  those  which  are  best 
as  ordinarily  found  in  the  city  markets.  Many  other 
varieties  which  are  very  delicious  when  freshly  caught 
lose  in  flavor  so  much  that  it  is  not  very  satisfactory 
to  try  to  serve  them  except  when  one  may  secure  them 
strictly  fresh.  Trout,  flounders  and  perch  are  ex- 
amples. It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  have  some  system 
of  tables  showing  the  season  of  such  foods  as  have 
a  distinct  season  which  can  be  hung  on  kitchen  wall 
or  other  available  place  £o  show  at  a  glance  the  most 


554 


FISH 


155 


desirable  times  to  buy  the  various   foods.      For  ex- 
ample, for  fish : 

The  Season  of  Fish 


Variety. 

Price. 

§ 
>-3 

£5 
& 

tl 
• 

I 

•< 

| 

§ 

i-s 

j>> 

3 

1-5 

9 

< 

« 

a 

0> 

CQ 

4-5 

i 

1 

I 

Bass—  Striped 
or  black 

(To   be 

filled  in 

Blueflsh 

from  lo- 

Butter 

cal  mar- 

. 

Cod  

ket.) 

Flounders 

Haddock.  .  . 

Halibut 

Herring.  
Lobster.. 

Mackerel  . 
Perch    

Pickerel   

Salmon  
Shad 

Smelts  

Sword 

Trout  

Weak 

White  

The  same  general  directions  hold  for  buying  shell 
fish.  Clams,  oysters  and  lobster  are  not  suitable  to  be 
eaten  unless  strictly  fresh  and  procured  from  sources 
of  which  the  healthfulness  of  the  supply  is  assured. 
Injurious  preservatives  are  sometimes  used  in  shipping 
to  the  middle  and  Western  states.  Clams  and  lobster 
may  be  purchased  the  year  round.  Oysters,  scallops 
and  shrimps  are  in  season  from  September  to  March. 
Fish  is  not  a  substitute  for  meat  in  nutritive  value,  be- 
cause it  has  less  fat  but  makes  a  pleasant  change  for 
those  who  are  able  to  purchase  under  favorable  con- 
ditions. 


Season 
of  Fish 


Shell 
Fish 


555 


VEGETABLES 

Vegetables  are  classified  according  to  their  form  as 
follows : 

Potatoes  f  Corn 

Turnips  Pumpkin 

Parsnips  -*,.  |  Peas 

Roots  and  Tubers  <!   Beets  Frult  Vegetables 


Radishes  Tomato 

L  Carrots  Cucumbers 

I  Lettuce  t  Egg  Plant 

i  Ko'Se  Blower  Vegetables  {  Sb'afl°ewer 

Season          ln  buying  one  should  watch  the  market  for  the  sea- 

and 

prices  Son,  as  it  will  vary  somewhat.  Vegetables  which  were 
formerly  confined  very  exclusively  to  their  season  are 
to  be  purchased  now  at  almost  any  time  in  large  city 
markets  which  are  supplied  by  hot  houses  and  by  ship- 
ping from  greater  distances  than  was  possible  before 
methods  of  shipping  became  so  superior  as  at  the 
present  time.  Yet  the  higher  prices  which  prevail  for 
fruit  and  vegetables  which  are  out  of  season  prevent 
a  great  number  from  buying  except  when  the  prices 
are  normal.  Nor  is  this  a  thing  altogether  to  be  de- 
plored. It  is  a  great  mistake  to  rely  to  any  large 
extent  upon  such  products  since  the  quality  is  never 
equal  to  that  of  products  grown  under  natural  condi- 
tions, while  the  frequent  use  of  a  vegetable  throughout 
the  year  takes  away  the  keen  enjoyment  to  be  realized 
by  those  who  "are  content  to  take  each  as  its  season 
brings  it.  Vegetables  are  a  very  important  article 

Literal      of  diet  and  should  be  liberally  supplied  at  all  times. 

supply      For  thoge  who  haye  iearne(j  to  eat  all  varieties  there 

156 


556 


VEGETABLES  157 

is  very  fair  variety  of  those  which  keep  through  the 
winter.  The  different  varities  with  season  and  aver- 
age price  will  be  found  in  the  following  table : 

Season  of  Vegetables 


Variety. 

Price 

0 
63 

>-a 

1 

w 

a- 

i 

>> 

oS 

o> 

t-3 

j>. 
3 

*-5 

to 

E3 
< 

i 

Si 

+i 

1 

> 
o 

1 

Artichokes  . 

5cqt 

X 

Asparagus  
Beets  . 

15c  pk. 
5c  b'nch 

X. 

X 

Cabbage.  
Cauliflower. 

lOc  head 
lOc      " 

X 

.X. 

Carrots  
Celery 

3c  b'nch 
8c  head 

.X. 

x 

Chicory  

ICc     " 

X 

Corn. 

8c  doz. 

X 

Cucumbers  

2c  each 

X 

Egg  Plant 

lOc     " 

X 

Greens  — 
(Beet,...  
1  Dandelion  
Mushrooms. 

15c  peck 
30c  Ib. 

.X. 

.... 

.X 

Okra  

40c  hun. 

X 

Onions  . 

15c  peck 

.X. 

Oyster  Planter 
Salsify  
Parsnips. 

15c  b'nch 
3clb. 

x 

.X. 

Peas  (fresh) 

lOc  peck 

.X. 

.    .    .    0 

Potatoes- 
Sweet. 

Irish 

75cbu. 

x 

Pumpkins  

2clb.    ' 

Radishes..  
Rhubarb  
Romaine 

3o  b'nch 
2clb. 
lOc  head 

X 

Spinach  

15c  peck 

X. 

Squash- 
Summer  

3c  each 

X 

Winter 

2c  Ib. 

x 

String  Beans..  

lOc  qt. 

X 

Tomatoes  .   . 

5cqt. 

X 

Turnips  

2clb. 



X 

X  marks  the  height  of  the  season,  or  when  it  is  at  its  best. 

The  prices  given  are  the  lowest,  or  those  at  the  height  of  the  season. 


557 


158 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


Quantity 
for  Serving 


Selecting: 
Vegetable*. 


It  is  sometimes  puzzling  to  determine  the  quantity 
to  order  for  the  number  of  persons  to  be  served.  The 
following  estimates  may  be  a  guide : 

Artichokes,  1  quart will  serve  ?  people. 


Asparagus,  1  bunch 

Beets,  1  bunch  (5)   

Cabbage,  1  good,  solid  .., 

Cauliflower,  1  small 

'•  good  size 

Carrots,  1  large  one , 

"         small  bunch  

Celery,  1  head  (3  bunches) 

Chicory,  1  head 

Corn,  1  doz 

Cucumber,  1 ...  (in  salad ) 

" (sliced). 

Egg  Plant,  medium 

Greens,  1  pk 

Onions,  1  qt 

Oyster  Plant,  5  stalks 

Parsnips,  2  (1  Ib.) 

Peas,  1  pk 

Radishes,  1  bunch 

Rhubarb,  1  Ib (in  sauce) . 

Romaine,  1  head 

String  Beans,  1  qt 

Tomatoes,  1  qt.  (5) 

Turnips,  1  (2J£  Ibs.) 


4 
6-8 


4-0 


4 

8-13 
4 

11-12 
4 

2-3 
6-8 
6-8 
4-6 


4-6 


4-6 
4 


4-8 


All  vegetables  should  be  fresh,  as  it  is  very  difficult 
to  cook  those  that  are  wilted  and  they  lose  much  in 
flavor.  Greens  and  salad  plants  should  *be  crisp  and 
tender  without  evidences  of  lying  until  bruised  and 
partially  decayed.  Cabbage  and  cauliflower  should 
have  solid  heads  and  not  be  discolored.  Medium-sized 
vegetables  are  preferable  to  either  extreme,  usually. 
If  small  there  is  large  waste,  while  too  large  ones  are 
apt  to  be  coarse  and  woody  in  texture.  This  applies 
especially  to  beets,  parsnips,  peas,  beans,  rhubarb,  etc. 
The  heavier  potatoes  are  in  proportion  to  their  size 
the  better,  but  medium  sized  ones  are  less  likely  to 
have  hollow  hearts.  The  varieties  differ  greatly  as 


558 


VEGETABLES 


159 


to  quality.  One  must,  in  general,  learn  by  trial  the 
best  to  be  obtained  in  the  local  market.  The  Early 
Rose  is  an  excellent  variety. 

In  selecting  pumpkins  choose  a  heavy  one  with 
hard  shell  and  deep  yellow  color.  Of  winter  squashes, 
the  dark  green  Hubbard  is  the  best.  It  should  be  very 
hard  and  good  sized.  The  crooked  neck  is  the  best 
variety  of  summer  squash.  The  evergreen  and  coun- 
try gentleman  are  excellent  varieties  of  sweet  corn. 
Spanish  onions  are  the  best,  being  more  delicate  than 
native  but  are  somewhat  higher  in  price. 

ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 

Butter,  milk  and  eggs  are  all  of  a  nature  to  require 
the  utmost  care  in  purchasing  and  in  storing  before 
use.  They  are  easily  tainted  so  as  to  be  spoiled  for 
one  of  sensitive  taste,  while  milk,  especially,  is  proba- 
bly the  most  frequent  transmiter  of  disease,  with  the 
exception  of  water,  of  all  our  foods  and  drinks.  Butter 
should  be  of  the  best,  but  a  high  price  is  not  always  a 
test  of  merit.  While  some  creamery  butters  bring  a 
very  high  price  and  take  high  awards  for  flavor,  so 
that  creamery  butter  as  a  whole  commands  a  higher 
price  than  dairy  butter,  it  is  not  the  most  desirable.  All 
good  creameries  maintain  a  high  sanitary  standard 
and  conditions  under  which  the  butter  is  made  are 
doubtless  superior  to  those  in  the  majority  of  private 
dairies,  yet  one  must  go  back  of  the  creameries  to  the 
farms  from  which  the  creameries  are  supplied  to  de- 
termine the  final  healthfulness  of  the  product.  It  is 


Scmashes 

and 

Pumpkins 


Butter 

Milk 

Eggs 


559 


160  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

here  that  the  difficulty  lies  with  creamery  butter,  since 
th»  farmers  that  keep  the  poorest  cows  and  who  do  not 
understand  dairying  under  right  conditions  are  those 
that  supply  the  creameries,  so  that  one  cannot  be  sure 
that  butter  made  from  the  cream  produced  under  such 
conditions  is  healthful.  It  is  far  better,  so  far  as  is 
possible,  to  buy  from  an  approved  private  dairy. 
Source  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  milk  supply.  One 
supply  should  follow  to  its  source  and  know  without  a  ques- 
tion that  there  can  be  no  pollution  if  any  milk  is  con- 
sumed in  a  raw  state  by  the  family.  This  becomes 
doubly  imperative  where  there  are  children  in  the 
family.  If  necessary,  a  cent  or  two  more  in  price  per 
bottle  is  little  for  the  sake  of  safety. 

Eggs  are  highest  in  price  in  winter.  A  housekeeper 
may  take  advantage  of  low  prices  in  the  spring  or 
fall  by  buying  a  supply  in  advance,  but  she  cannot  do 
this  unless  she  can  be  sure  of  a  cool  place  to  store 
them  and  is  willing  to  take  the  trouble  to  coat  each 
egg  over  so  that  the  air  may  not  penetrate  the  shell. 
Wrapping  each  in  separate  paper  is  a  fairly  good  pro- 
tection. Care  must  be  used  not  to  use  anything  that 
will  cause  an  unpleasant  flavor,  as  the  shells  are  very 
porous  and  the  contents  readily  acquire  odors  of  any- 
thing near.  A  10  per  cent  solution  of  silicate  of  soda 
is  an  excellent  preservative. 

Testing         A  salt  solution  is  a  good  test  of  the  freshness  of  an 

Eggs      egg.    Two  tablespoonfuls  of  salt  for  a  quart  of  water 

may  be  used.     If  fresh,  the  egg  will  sink  in  it ;  if  not 


560 


DRY  GROCERIES 


161 


perfectly  fresh,  will  show  signs  of  rising,  while  a  bad 
egg  will  float  at  once. 

DRY  GROCERIES 

While  most  of  what  has  been  discussed  in  the  pre- 
vious pages  relates  to  food  which  must  be  purchased 
as  needed,  because  perishable,  there  is  a  class  in  buy- 
ing which  much  time  and  thought  may  be  saved  by 
supplying  enough  for  at  least  a  month  in  advance. 
This  is  dry  groceries  such  as  sugar,  flour,  cereals, 
flavorings,  coffee  (unroasted),  tea,  chocolate,  spices, 
soap,  starch,  and  all  like  necessities. 

A  store-closet  large  enough  to  allow  the  purchase 
of  these  things  at  a  wholesale  store,  and  so  arranged 
as  to  temperature,  dryness,  light  and  ventilation  as  to 
keep  them  in  perfect  condition  is  a  saving  so  great 
as  to  astonish  one  who  trys  the  method  for  the  first 
time.  Often  the  difference  amounts  to  twenty  per  cent. 

Sugar  should  be  bought  by  the  hundred  weight  at 
least,  flour  by  the  barrel,  canned  goods  by  the  dozen 
or  better  by  the  case,  cereals  by  the  dozen  packages 
after  the  fresh  fall  supply  is  in,  vanilla  by  the  quart 
(at  the  drug  store  to  secure  better  quality),  baking 
powder  by  the  5-pound  box  from  which  smaller  quan- 
tities are  transferred  as  needed  to  the  box  in  use,  soap 
by  the  box,  that  it  may  have  a  chance  to  dry  out  thor- 
oughly and  so  waste  less  readily,  and  so  on  through 
a  long  list.  For  a  very  small  family  the  list  would 
naturally  be  shorter.  Anything  that  does  not  deteri- 


Storage 


Quantities 


561 


162 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 


Brand 
of  Goods 


Adulterations 


Percentage 
in  Saving 


Judgment 


orate  in  storage  can  be  bought  to  much  greater  advan- 
tage in  quantity. 

In  groceries  it  is  not  well  to  buy  an  inferior  grade. 
Here  the  best  is  the  cheapest  and  wisest,  especially  in 
these  days  of  intense  competition  and  fraud.  It  is  well 
to  know  a  good  brand  and  insist  upon  having  it.  For- 
eign labels  are  not  a  surety  of  a  good  grade  of  goods, 
in  fact  some  of  our  best  American  firms  put  up  their 
best  quality  of  spices,  for  instance,  under  their  own 
name  and  the  poorer  grades  are  labeled  with  French 
labels  and  sold  to  firms  that  deal  in  a  cheaper  line  of 
goods. 

Through  the  reports  of  the  Government  upon  adul- 
teration as  given  in  the  Bulletins  and  the  report  of 
different  state  and  city  inspectors  one  may  ascertain 
to  some  extent  which  are  reliable  and  which  are  not. 

CONCLUSION 

The  household  manager  should  learn  to  think  in 
percentages.  One  cent  less  on  a  ten  cent  article  seems 
a  trivial  saving,  yet  it  is  ten  per  cent — ten  dollars  in 
every  hundred.  It  is  fair  to  state  that  there  will  be  a 
difference  in  money  paid  of  from  ten  to  twenty  per 
cent  between  careless  and  careful  purchases. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  customer  who 
knows  and  is  particular  receives  the  best  of  goods  and 
services. 

The  successful  business  man  is  an  expert  in  judging 
the  materials  in  which  he  deals ;  he  is  perfectly  familiar 
with  the  range  of  prices  and  quick  to  take  advantage 


562 


DRY  GROCERIES  163 

of  all  favorable  conditions.  The  household  managcr 
needs  to  be  just  as  familiar  with  all  the  goods  which 
relate  to  the  home  and  with  their  prices. 

One  becomes  an  expert  only  through  experience,  but      The  Expert 

.  -i-ii  i  j  Household 

experience  is  not  gained  simply  by  ordering  goods;      Manager 
appearance  must  be  noted  carefully  and  results  com- 
pared intelligently  to  acquire  the  trained  eye  and  the 
trained  judgment  necessary  to  the  successful  house- 
hold manager. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Art  of  Right  Living  ($0.50),  Ellen  H.  Richards. 

Cost  of  Living  ($1.00),  Ellen  H.  Richards. 

Cost  of  Food   ($1.00),  Ellen  H.  Richards. 

Domestic  Service  ($2.00),  Lucy  M.  Salmon. 

Economic  Function  of  Woman  ($0.15),  E.  T.  Divine. 

Family  Living  on  $500  a  Year  ($1.25),  J.  Corson. 

Home  Economics   ($1.50),  Maria  Parloa. 

Household  Economics  ($1.50),  Helen  Campbell. 

The  Woman  Who  Spends  ($1.00),  B.  J.  Richardson. 

Toilers  in  the  Home  ($1.50),  Lillian  Pettengill. 

Woman  and  Economics  ($1.50),  Charlotte  Perkins  Gilman. 

Woman's  Share  in  Primitive  Culture  ($1.75),  Otis  T.  Mason. 

IT.   S.   Government  Bulletins 

Farmer's  Bulletin,  No. '142,  The  Nutritive  and  Economic  Value 

of  Food  (Free). 

Farmer's  Bulletin,  No.  183,  Meat  on  the  Farm. 
Reprint  Year  Book   1902,  The  Cost  of  Food  as  Related  to  its 

Nutritive  Value  (Free). 
Office   of  Experiment   Stations,    No.    129,   Dietary   Studies   in 

Boston,    Springfield,    Philadelphia   and    Chicago    (10   cents. 

coin}. 
Farmers'   Bulletin,  No.  391,  Economical  Use  of  Meats  in   the 

Home  (Free) 


563 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

PART    III 


Read  Carefully.  Place  your  name  and  address  on  the 
first  sheet  of  the  test.  Use  a  light  grade  of  paper  and  write 
on  one  side  of  the  sheet  only.  L/eave  space  between  an- 
swers. Read  the  lesson  paper  a  number  of  times  before 
answering  the  questions.  Answer  fully. 


1.  What  factors  combine  to  make  meat  suitable  for 

the  table? 

2.  (a)     By  what  should  one  be  governed  in  select- 

ing a  cut  of  beef?     (b)     What  cuts  have  you 
found  especially  satisfactory? 

3.  How  is  a  side  of  beef  cut  up  in  your  own  mar- 

ket ?    What  are  the  prices  ? 

4.  Describe  the  "bottom  round,"  stating  its  location 

in  the  animal,  quality,  suitable  uses,  approxi- 
mate value,  etc. 

5.  Compare  with  "top  round." 

6.  Compare  a  cut  from  the  brisket  with  the  flank 

cut. 

7.  What  cuts  of  beef  have  you  never  used  ? 

8.  Have  you  any  especially  satisfactory  methods  of 

preparing  cheap  cuts,  other  than  noted  in  these 
books  ? 

9.  Describe  a  desirable  piece  of  salt  pork. 


564 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

10.  A  satisfactory  fowl  to  roast. 

11.  A  satisfactory  roast  of  pork. 

12.  The  best  cut  of  steak. 

13.  French  lamb  chops. 

id.     What  objections  are  there  to  canned  meats? 

15.  Compare  fish  with  meat  as  a  food. 

1 6.  Make  a  table  giving  the  season  and  prices   of 

vegetables  to  be  obtained  in  your  local  market 
similar  to  that  on  page  137. 

17.  State  objections  for  excessive  use  of  vegetables 

out  of  season. 

1 8.  What   answer   would   you   give   a   mother   who 

states  that  her  children  like  no  vegetables  ex- 
cept canned  tomato,  preferring  it  to  the  fresh 
fruit  even  in  season,  and  asks  if  there  is  any 
harm  in  letting  them  have  it  exclusively,  every 
meal? 

19.  Have  you  tried  buying  any  groceries  in  quantity? 

If  so,  with  what  success  in  price,  quality,  and 
keeping? 

20.  What  purchases  do  you  find  hardest  to  make? 

Why? 

21.  Can  you  add  any  suggestions  or  comments  to 

help  others? 

22.  Are  there  any  questions  you  would  like  to  ask 

relating  to  Household  Management? 
Note. — After  completing  this  test,  sign  your  full  name. 


565 


SUPPLEMENTAL  PROGRAM  ARRANGED  FOR 
CLASS  STUDY  ON 

HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

i 

BY  BERTHA  M.  TERRILL,  A.  B. 

MEETING  I 
Place  of  Home  and  Home-maker  in  the  Economic  World. 

(Study  pages   1-8.) 
1.     Economic  Function  of  Woman,  Divine.     ($0.15,  postage 

2c.) 

Cost  of  Living,  Ellen  H.  Richards.     ($1.00,  postage  lOc.) 
Standards  of  Living,  Chapters  I  and  II. 
Household  Expenditures,  Chapter  I. 

3.  The  Standard  of  Life,  Bosanquet.      (1.50,  out  of  print.) 

Chapter  I. 

4.  Household   Economics,  Helen  Campbell.     ($1.50,  postage 

16c.)     Household  Industries,  Chapter  VII. 
.  5.     See  works  on  Political  Economics  on  place  of  Consump- 
tion in  discussion  of  Wealth. 

MEETING  II 
(Study  pages  9-41.) 
Division  of  Incomes. 

1.  The  Woman  Who  Spends,  Bertha  J.  Richardson.     ($1.00, 

postage  lOc.) 

Chapters    on    Needs,    Choices,    Imitation    versus    Inde- 
pendence,  Satisfaction,   Responsibility. 

2.  Cost  of  Living,  Ellen  H.  Richards.     ($1.00,  postage  8c0) 
Housing,  Chapter  IV. 

Operating  Expenses,  Chapter  V. 
Food,  Chapter  VI. 
Clothing. 
Higher  Life. 

3.  Cost  of  Shelter,  Ellen  H.  Richards.     ($1.00,  postage  lOc.) 

4.  Cost  of  Food,  Ellen  Richards.     ($1.00,  postage  lOc.) 
See  articles  on  "Increase  in  Household  Expenses.''    Har- 
per's Bazar,  Sept.-Dec.,  1906. 


566 


HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

MEETING  III 

(Study  pages  42-68.) 

(a)  Household  Accounts. 

(a)  Value— Worth  the  time  and  effort? 

(b)  Different  Methods. 

(c)  Discussion  of  Personal  Choices. 

Reference — How     to    Keep    Household    Accounts,    Haskell. 
($1.00,  postage   lOc.) 

(b)  Banking. 

(a)  Use  to  housewife;  opinion  of  members. 

(b)  Varieties  of  Banks.     Local  Banks. 

(c)  How  made  most  useful? 

Reference — How    to    Keep    Household    Accounts,     Haskell. 

($1.00,  postage  lOc.) 
See  article   on  Finance,  by  Dr.  Campbell,  in  Cosmopolitan 

Magazine. 
(Select  answers  to  test  questions  on  Part  I.) 

MEETING  IV 

(Study  pages   71-96.) 

(a)  Organization  in  the  Home. 

1.  Household  Economics,  Chapter  XII.     Campbell. 

2.  Cost  of  Living,  Chapter  IX.    Richards.     ($1.00,  postage 

lOc.) 

3.  Cosmopolitan  Magazine — April,  May  and  June,  1899. 

4.  "The    Eight    Hour    Day    in    Housekeeping."     American 

Kitchen   Magazine,   Article    in   January,   February 
and  March,  1902. 
See  Supplement,  pages  181-191. 

(b)  Domestic  Service. 

1.  Domestic  Service,  Salmon.     ($2.00,  postage  18c.) 

2.  Household    Economics,    Chapter    XI,    Campbell.      ($1.50, 

postage  16c.) 


PROGRAM 

MEETING  V 

(Study  pages  97-125.) 
Buying  Supplies. 

(a)  Bargains— real  and  fictitious. 

(b)  Grades— best,  the  cheapest? 

(c)  Comparison  of  Department  and  Specialty  Stores. 

(d)  Seasons  for  buying  supplies. 

(e)  Buying  in  quantity. 

(f)  Local  stores. 

(Select  answers  to  test  questions  on  Part  II.) 

MEETING  VI 

(Study   pages    127-163.) 
Marketing. 

(a)  Meats — Local  cuts. 

(b)  Vegetables. 

(c)  Groceries.     Get  estimates  in  quantity  from  whole- 

sale store. 

(d)  Comparison  of  local  markets  in  sanitary  conditions 

and  practices,  cold  storage  facilities,  cuts  of  meat, 

prices,  etc. 
Reference— Home  Economics.   Chapter  on  Marketing.   Maria 

Parloa.     ($1.50,  postage  16c.) 
(Select  answers  to  test  questions  on  Part  III.) 


568 


SUPPLEMENT 
HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

BY    BERTHA  M.   TERRILL,    A.    B. 

A  rare  opportunity  is  afforded  us,  through  these 
orrespondence  courses,  of  sharing  the  experiences  of 
\nany  different  housekeepers  of  widely  differing  loca- 
ations  and  conditions.  Through  this  supplement  I 
am  glad  to  have  the  opportunity  of  passing  on  the 
most  valuable  contributions,  and  I  anticipate  that  they 
will  amplify  helpfully  the  material  of  the  text. 

DIFFERING  OPINIONS 

In  some  points  there  has  seemed  to  be  universal 
agreement.  In  others,  there  have  been  flatest  contra- 
dictions of  opinions,  amusingly  so,  sometimes,  if  one 
could  forget  the  trials  and  struggles  involved.  One, 
for  instance,  affirms  with  much  positiveness  that  help 
by  the  hour,  in  place  of  resident  labor,  is  entirely  im- 
possible. "How  can  shop  and  store  hours  be  com- 
pared with  those  in  a  house,  or  the  work  be  re- 
adjusted to  conform  to  such  a  plan?  Hasn't  the  prob- 
lem two  sides?  Is  it  unreasonable  of  me  to  desire  a 
late  dinner  when  we  are  hurried  at  breakfast,  irregu- 
lar for  luncheon,  and  dinner  at  night  is  the  only  meal 
the  family  may  take  together  and  enjoy  leisurely?'' 
The  next  paper  taken  up  assured  me,  no  less  posi- 
tively, that  the  plan  is  admirable,  the  writer  has  tried 

167 


569 


168  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

it  and  finds  it  a  great  relief  and  no  more  expensive,  all 
things  considered. 

LAUNDRY  WORK 

The  question  of  laundry  work,  done  in  the  house 
or  sent  out,  brought  forth  as  contradictory  views,  al- 
though such  conclusions  could  easily  be  derived  as 
that  all  would  find  it  a  relief  to  send  laundry  work  out 
if  it  could  be  done  as  well,  under  as  sanitary  condi- 
tions, and  no  more  expensively.  (Not  many  seemed 
to  have  much  idea  of  the  actual  difference  in  expense.) 
It  was  easy  to  s^.,  also,  that  in  practically  no  com- 
munity thus  far  reported  from,  are  there  satisfactory 
laundries,  and  prices  are  reported  as  too  high  to  be 
tolerated.  Where  are  the  clubs  ready  to  devote  some 
of  their  time  and  attention  to  the  solution  of  this 
problem  for  their  communities?  One  has  done  so, 
very  satisfactorily. 

These  differences  of  opinion  spring  largely  from  the 
great  differences  in  local  conditions  and  in  personal 
experiences,  yet  they  emphasize  the  fact  that  each 
home  has  its  own  peculiar  problems  to  be  worked  out, 
and  the  most  that  can  be  hoped  for  from  suggestion 
from  without  is  the  laying  of  fundamental  principles, 
together  with  opportunity  of  studying  the  experience 
of  others  as  a  guide  in  deciding  our  own  course  of 
action. 

DIVISION  OF  INCOME 

There  is  less  material  contributed  on  Household 
Accounts  than  I  could  wish,  less,  I  hope,  than  may 


570 


DIVISION  OF  INCOME  169 

be  in  a  few  years,  if  all  the  housekeepers  who  have 
registered  resolves  to  know  more  of  this  side  of  their 
business  in  future,  live  up  to  their  intention.  Evi- 
dently one  in  fifty  would  be  a  generous  estimate  of 
those  who  keep  anything  bordering  upon  helpful  ac- 
counts at  present,  even  among  our  students. 

Fortunately  some  have  been  keeping  careful  rec- 
ords and  the  papers  of  such  have  been  full  of  in- 
terest. They  show  that  the  budgets  given  in  the  text 
are  fair — both  the  actual  and  the  ideal,  for  some 
rarely  wise,  able  women  are  finding  the  ideal  budget 
possible  today  and  are  living  close  to  its  standard. 

I  wish  it  were  possible  to  present  every  detail  of 
the  management  of  such,  that  "he  who  runs  may  read" 
their  valuable  lessons.  There  is  no  evidence  of  un- 
worthy curtailment.  One  catches,  on  the  contrary, 
the  spirit  of  highest,  worthiest  enjoyments  and  con- 
tentment. 

Here  is  one  in  a  city  of  an  Eastern  state,  where 
husband  and  wife  without  children  have  an  income  of 
$1,200  in  yearly  salary,  paid  monthly, 

MONTHLY  BUDGET,  FAMILY  OF  TWO 
OUTGO. 

Rent $16.00 

For  3  rooms  and  bath  on  2nd  floor,  with 

storage  and  cellar  privileges.     Low  for 

location. 

Car  fares $3.50 

Food $22.50 

Average  per  year  not  over  $15.00. 

Operating  expenses    $6.50 

Gas,  light  and  heat,  average 3-5° 


571 


i;o  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

Laundry 1.50 

Cleaning,  2  half  days 1.50 

Life  Insurance   7.00 

Investment    10.00 

Personal  allowances   30.00 

Incidentals    4.50 


Total .$100.00 

Each  is  allowed  $15.00  for  clothing,  gifts,  charity, 
higher  life  and  personal  saving. 

A  physician's  family  of  four  in  Southern  California 
with  income  of  $1,500,  spend  for  rent  10  per  cent, 
operating  expenses  33  per  cent,  food  25  per  cent, 
clothing  15  per  cent,  and  higher  life  17  per  cent, 
while  a  family  of  four  in  Montana  with  the  same  in- 
come ($1,500)  rent  a  good-sized  house  with  yard 
large  enough  for  kitchen  garden  and  small  poultry 
yard  for  $18  a  month,  or  14  2-5  per  cent,  and  spend 
for  operating  expenses  15  per  cent,  food  20  per  cent, 
clothing  18  per  cent  and  higher  life  30  per  cent. 

These  three  are  interesting  taken  together,  as  show- 
ing some  conditions  which  lie  practically  beyond  in- 
dividual control,  yet  which  may  have  decided  effect 
upon  the  result.  The  operating  expenses  in  the  physi- 
cian's family,  for  instance,  have  to  cover  office  rental, 
care,  lighting,  heating,  telephone,  etc.,  which  is 
in  reality  not  a  part  of  the  household  expenses.  Con- 
trast also  the  accommodations  possible  in  the  East- 
ern city  at  $16  rent  per  month,  and  that  very  low 
for  the  place,  and  those  available  in  Montana  for  a 
similar  price. 


572 


DIVISION  OF  INCOME  17; 

It  has  long  been  observed  that  salaries  and  wages 
do  not  vary  in  different  localities  in  any  way  com- 
mensurate with  the  great  difference  in  living  expenses. 

In  Washington,  D.  C,  a  family  of  husband,  wife 
and  four  children,  aged  6  to  16  years,  with  income 
of  $1,500,  spend  for.  rent  $360,  operating  expenses 
$80  to  $90,  food  $400,  clothing  $350,  with  balance 
of  $300  for  higher  life. 

MONTHLY  DIVISION  OF  $125 

Rent $25 

Food   30 

Fuel   and   Gas v 10 

Clothing 10 

Laundry    5 

Furniture    10 

Higher  Life 10 

Bank  Account  25 

"Three  members  of  the  family  who  are  not  at 
home  during  midday  take  lunch  consisting  of  buttered 
toast  or  bread  and  preserves  that  I  had  put  up  dur- 
ing the  summer.  We  do  not  use  cereal  at  every 
breakfast  nor  do  we  have  dessert  after  every  dinner, 
but  about  four  times  a  week.  I  have  used  tomatoes 
rather  frequently,  although  they  are  high  in  price, 
but  we  enjoy  them  and  prefer  them  to  something  else 
costing  less.  I  'can'  my  own  fruit  which  can  be  used 
in  many  ways  as  a  dessert. 

"Out  of  $30  I  spend  $10  for  such  provisions  as 
sugar,  tea,  coffee,  butter,  flour,  meal,  lard,  yeast, 
powder,  salt,  pepper,  cereals,  starch,  blue,  soap,  etc. 


573 


172  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

This  gives  $20   for    meats    and    vegetables   and  the 
family  is  thus  maintained  on  $5  a  week. 

"My  son  makes  all  fires  and  goes  errands,  cleans 
front  and  back  yard.  My  daughter  arranges  the 
table,  airs  bed  rooms  and  puts  them  in  order  before 
going  to  school.  Once  a  week  my  laundress  scrubs 
kitchen  and  cleans  vestibule,  front  porch  and  bath 
room.  I  superintend  the  cooking  and  house  in  gen- 
eral. My  husband  frequently  aids  in  marketing." 

MENU  FOR  A  WEEK 

Sunday 
(Breakfast) 

Fruit — Oranges      (Two  cut  in  half) 

Sliced  Ham    (broiled)  Scrambled  Eggs    (two) 

Hot  corn  bread      (two  eggs) 

Coffee  (with  cream  ) 

(Dinner) 
Roast  of  Beef 

Mashed  potatoes  Cream  of  asparagus  on  toast. 

Bread — with  butter.  Lettuce   Salad. 

Rice  pudding. 

Monday 

(Breakfast) 

Cream  of  Wheat. 

Scrapple  (fried  crisp) 

Hot  Biscuits.  Sliced  Tomatoes. 

Coffee. 
(Dinner) 
Sliced  Beef  heated  in  meat  sauce. 

Boiled  Onions  Cream   Sauce    (a  la  cream) 
Rice.          Celery  Salad   (celery,  eggs,  spring  onions  and  parsley) 
Bread.  Tea. 

Tuesday 
(Breakfast) 
Oat  Meal. 

Bacon.  Egg  Omelet   (with  parsley) 

Wheat  Muffins.  Coffee. 


574 


DIVISION  OF  INCOME  173 

(Dinner) 
Clear  Soup. 

Brown  Hash.  Beauregard  Eggs  on  toast. 

Sliced  Oranges  and  bananas  with  cocoanut. 

Wednesday 

(Breakfast) 

Sausage  Corn  Muffins,  with  butter. 

Poached  Eggs.  Coffee. 

(Dinner) 

Ham    (Boiled)  Spinach  with  Egg   (hard  cooked). 

Bread. 

Sweet  Potatoes  Delmonico    (potatoes  and  cheese) 
Prunes.  Tea  or  Cocoa. 

Thursday 
(Breakfast) 

Cream  of  Wheat  with  bananas  and  milk. 

Frizzled  Beef.  Toast  (buttered) 

Sliced  Tomatoes. 

(Dinner) 

Soup.   (Vegetable). 
Ham  Croquettes  with  Tomato  Sauce. 

Macaroni  with  Cheese. 

Pickle.  Bread.  Celery   Salad. 

Canned  Peaches    (Home  Made.) 

Friday 
(Breakfast) 

Cream  of  Salmon.  Potato  Chips. 

Hot  Biscuits.  Coffee. 

(Dinner) 
Baked  Shad,  or  Trout.  Mashed  Potatoes. 

Sliced  Tomatoes  with  Salad  Dressing. 
Corn  Bread.  Tea. 

Saturday 

(Breakfast) 

Mush  with  milk. 

Bacon.  Scrambled  Eggs.  Potato  Chips. 

Plain  Bread  or  Toast.  Coffee. 

(Dinner) 

Sliced  Ham.  Creamed  Cabbage. 

Boiled  Potatoes.  Bread. 

Apple  Sauce.  Tea. 


575 


174  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

DIVISION  OF  $4,500 

Family  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  physician,  wife,  two 
children,  two  maids,  laundress  one  and  a  half  days  a 
week: 

Rent,  10  per  cent  $4  5Q 

Food,  14  per  cent 6  30 

Operating  expenses,  20  per  cent....  900 

Clothing,  9  per  cent .$405 

Incidentals,  2  per  cent   90 

Office  Expense,  25  per  cent 11  25 

Higher  Life,  savings,  etc.,  20  per  cent  900 

Total $4500 

DETAILS  OF  OPERATING  EXPENSES. 

Services  (including  wages  of  2 
maids,  laundry,  ashes  removed, 
snow  shoveled,  rugs  beaten,  win- 
dows washed,  etc  ^ $5  50 

Fuel i  30 

Lighting 60 

Telephone    64 

Water  tax  16 

Ice    ...•• 20 

Household  Supplies   60 


Total  $900 

She  says :  "Nothing  is  more  helpful  to  the  practice 
of  economy  than  a  record  from  year  to  year  of  all 
expenditures.  I  have  been  a  more  successful  house- 
keeper since  I  began  keeping  careful  accounts.  I  have 
reduced  my  monthly  food  bill  from  $60  to  $50  and  less 
since  I  offered  my  cook  10  per  cent  on  what  we 
saved  each  month/' 


576 


DIVISION  OF  INCOME  175 

FOOD  ECONOMY 

The  practice  of  wise  economies  has  been  so  success- 
ful and  gratifying  in  one  family  of  my  acquaintance 
within  the  past  few  years  that  I  must  share  some  of 
the  details  with  those  interested. 

The  mother  has  succeeded  in  saving  enough  in  four 
years  to  take  herself  and  son  on  a  European  trip  as  a 
supplement  to  his  education.  The  family  live  in  the 
middle  West  and  consist  of  three  ladies  and  a  boy  of 
eighteen. 

The  mother  writes :  "I  am  almost  ashamed  to 
mention  the  small  sum  we  live  on.  It  is  by  saving  all 
left-overs,  and  by  the  exercise  of  quite  a  little  fore- 
thought and  some  self-denial  that  it  is  accomplished. 
I  do  not  mean  to  practice  economy  at  the  expense  of 
health,  however."  The  daily  average  for  each  person 
for  the  year  for  good  material  was  12  2-5  cents  one 
year,  86  4-5  cents  a  week,  another,  85  1-6  cents. 

A  small  garden,  cared  for  on  shares,  aided  some- 
what, although  not  largely,  it  supplied  apples  and 
pears  in  season  and  for  preserving,  and  a  part  of  the 
summer  vegetables  and  potatoes. 

Sample  menus  with  the  hints  accompanying  them 
will  be  as  suggestive  as  anything  could  be,  to  show 
the  methods  of  economy. 

On  a  basis  of  85  to  90  cents  per  person  a  week : 

Winter — Breakfast,  6:30  a.  m. 

Oatmeal  with  cream  and   sugar. 
Bread  of  Franklin  mills  and  Pillsbury  flours  mixed. 


577 


176  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

Muffins  or  pancakes. 

.Butter. 
Postum  with  1-3  hot  skimmed  milk. 

Jelly  or  fruit  syrup: 

In  summer  various  wheat  cereals  are  used,  as  Ral- 
ston's  Breakfast  Food,  Cream  of  Wheat  and  the  like. 
In  the  spring  toast  and  eggs  occasionally. 

Dinner — 12  m. 

1.  Stuffed  beefs  heart. 

Stewed  onions.  Mashed  potatoes. 

Spiced  pears. 

Entire  wheat  bread  and  butter. 
Gelatine  dessert  with  whipped  cream. 

2.  Remains  of  beef's  heart  warmed. 

Creamed  turnips. 

Fried  mashed  potatoes.  Green  tomato  pickles. 

Rice  with  butter  and  sugar. 

Not  more  than  two  hearts  are  served  in  a  year. 
They  are  excellent  for  variety,  but  not  desirable  too 
often.  A  variety  of  meats  and  vegetables  is  given.  In 
a  three  weeks'  menu  a  chicken  appears,  serving  two 
meals,  roast  pork,  mutton  chops,  oysters,  Hamburg 
steak,  creamed  dried  beef,  cod  fish,  salmon  with 
white  sauce,  beef  steak  and  boiled  ham.  The  meat 
from  soup  bones  is  used  in  a  pie  or  seasoned  well  and 
served  on  toast.  Two  turkeys  are  served  in  a  season. 
A  good  roast  once  a  month  and  steak  or  chops  once 
a  week. 

Occasionally  a  bisque  or  other  soup  is  served  when 


578 


FOOD  ECONOMY  177 

the  materials  are  at  hand,  but,  as  a  rule,  the  soup 
course  is  omitted  with  meats,  being  reserved  for  days 
when  fish  or  lighter  courses  are  served. 

There  is  never  a  spoonful  of  anything  wasted.  A 
cupful  of  corn  left  from  one  dinner  is  scalloped  for 
the  next.  A  little  tomato  may  be  added  to  it  for  a 
change.  Spoonfuls  of  fruit  left  from  suppers  are 
made  into  dumplings  for  dessert.  Pies  are  seldom 
served.  Hickory  nuts  and  dates  are  a  favorite  dessert 
Tomatoes  are  home-canned.  Lima  beans  are  used  oc- 
casionally as  one  vegetable. 

When  spring  comes  and  eggs  are  plentiful  omelettes 
are  used,  milk  and  egg  puddings  and  custards. 

Supper — 5  p.  m. 

Bread  and  butter. 
Buns,   cinnamon   rolls,    etc.,   cookies,    gingersnaps    or 

cake. 

Fruit.  Cheese. 

Peanut  butter  or  a  little  cold  meat.     Sometimes  milk 

toast,  warmed  potatoes  or  macaroni. 

If  for  guests,  pressed  veal,  scalloped  oysters  with 
olives  and  jelly  in  addition. 

A  great  variety  of  fruits  is  used.  All  varieties  are 
preserved.  In  summer  and  fall  fruit  is  a  frequent 
dessert. 

We  are  all  more  or  less  familiar  with  the  enforced 
economies  of  life,  but  this  is  an  example  of  voluntary 
curtailing  for  a  larger  good,  without  harm.  Would  that 
more  homes  could  catch  the  spirit  of  this  housekeeper 


579 


i;8  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

who  writes :  "There  are  so  many  things  I  rather 
spend  money  for  than  for  food!" 

In  a  study  of  present  standards  of  life  as  interpreted 
through  facts  in  regard  to  food  (Report  of  Lake 
Placid  Conference  on  Home  Economics,  1902)  some 
things  are  emphasized  which  many  housekeepers  are 
ignoring,  wilfully  or  otherwise,  and  which  affect  the 
cost  of  living  seriously  as  well  as  the  comfort  and 
health  of  the  family. 

The  data  was  gathered  from  homes  in  which  the 
wage-earners  were  professional  men.  Wherever  sev- 
eral maids  were  employed  the  increase  in  expense  of 
food  is  disproportionately  large.  A  family  of  three 
is  instanced. 

With  three  employes,  cook,  waitress  and  companion, 
with  income  of  $3,400,  26.5  per  cent  is  spent  for  food. 
In  contrast,  a  family  of  the  same  size  with  $100  less 
income,  that  employs  a  nurse  maid  and  one  general 
helper,  spends  only  13.9  per  cent  for  food.  In  the 
first  case  much  of  the  ordering  and  preparation  of  the 
food  is  left  to  employes ;  in  the  latter  the  housekeeper 
attends  to  the  ordering  and  plans  the  meals  herself. 

The  menus  submitted  at  that  time  show  a  surprising 
lack  of  variety  and  an  ignorance  of  simple,  inexpensive 
foods  that  can  be  used  interchangeably.  "Soups  were 
very  little  used.  Cheaper  cuts  of  meat  almost  invari- 
ably took  the  form  of  stews.  In  no  case  were  lentils 
or  peas  substituted  for  beans.  Fish,  which  is  one  of 
the  less  expensive  and  most  digestible  foods,  was 


580 


FOOD  ECONOMY  179 

used  sparingly.  Macaroni,  spaghetti,  rice,  hominy  and 
other  cereals  were  almost  never  substituted  for  pota- 
toes. The  possibilities  of  cheese  seemed  quite  unex- 
plored. There  was  very  little  variety  in  vegetables  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that"  in  almo'st  every  case  the  families 
lived  in  large  cities  where  the  markets  were  bewil- 
deringly  rich  with  a  great  variety." 

These  facts  are  but  further  evidence  of  the  mis- 
conception in  these  days  on  the  part  of  many,  of  the 
duties  of  the  housekeeper.  What  greater  duty  can 
she  have  than  looking  after  her  share  of  the  business 
engagement  entered  into  when  she  assumed  the  re- 
sponsibilities of  a  home  and  pledged  herself  to  faith- 
fulness in  her  part? 

These  duties  are  worthy  of,  yes,  require,  if  properly 
attended  to,  the  mental  ability  and  intelligent  care  and 
interest  of  the  trained,  skillful  women  who  assume 
them,  and  it  is  a  pity  that  so  many  homes  are  being 
wrecked  and  others  falling  far  short  of  their  finest 
possibilities  because  of  such  neglect.  I  sometimes  try 
to  picture  the  outcry  there  would  be  if  the  wage- 
earners  in  our  homes  were  equally  lax  in  their  respon- 
sibilities of  providing!  And  yet,  as  I  have  tried  to 
point  out  in  the  text,  care  in  the  consumption  is  as 
important  in  the  home-finance  as  is  providing,  and 
the  difference  in  comfort  is  greater,  proportionately. 

What  is  to  start  a  great  wave  of  pride  over  our 
land  that  shall  stir  every  home-maker  who  is  at  pres- 
ent indifferent  to,  or  ignorant  of  these  great  facts, 


581 


i8o  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

with  an  ambition  to  prove  her  right  to  her  position 
and  make  her  a  worthy  partner  in  her  home-world, 
not  a  mere  enjoyer  of  another's  strenuous  labor! 

I  know  protest  will  at  once  arise  in  the  form  of  such 
questions  as  "Where  is  the  overworked  home-maker 
to  find  time  to  do  any  more?"  "What  if  the  hus- 
bands prefer  to  hire  help  that  their  wives  may  have 
freer,  happier  lives?"  "What  can  women  do  who 
haven't  strength  to  assume  such  duties?" 

If  you  ask,  I  must  answer  frankly,  that  the  noble 
home-makers  whom  I  look  upon  with  unbounded  re- 
spect, and  whose  homes  and  lives  are  a  constant  uplift 
to  all  who  know  them,  never  seem  to  have  difficulty  in 
adjusting  these  matters.  Do  we  not  all  know,  in 
reality,  that  time  is  ours,  after  all,  to  spend  as  we 
choose  to  spend  it.  We  may  have  fallen  into  the  poor 
method,  have  followed  the  way  of  all  about  us  until 
it  seems  imperative  to  spend  it  all  as  we  do,  but  if 
we  looked  at  these  matters  as  really  serious  we  should 
find  adjustment  some  way.  Health  and  strength  are 
so  largely  in  our  keeping,  also!  Confusion  of  too 
many  outside  interests,  over  excitement,  lack  of  well- 
ordered,  systematic  living  are  depriving  many  a  woman 
of  the  life  rightfully  hers.  Lack  of  sufficient  healthful 
exercise  does  the  same  for  others.  How  few  seem  to 
understand  it!  At  least  the  results  would  seem  to 
indicate  it. 


582 


DOMESTIC  SERVICE  181 

DOMESTIC  SERVICE 

And  now  we  come  to  the  perplexing,  annoying 
problems  of  Domestic  Service !  We  wish  we  had  some 
effective  solutions  to  offer !  Some  women,  in  dis- 
cussing the  condition,  have  contributed  valuable  hints 
regarding  successful  methods  employed  which,  if  not 
wholly  new,  .might  well  be  reconsidered  by  many  an 
employer. 

Hugo  Miinsterberg,  contrasting  conditions  in  Amer- 
ica and  Germany,  writes :  "The  conviction  of  every 
American  girl  that  it  is  dignified  to  work  in  a  mill, 
but  undignified  to  be  a  cook  in  any  other  family,  would 
never  have  reached  its  present  intensity  if  an  anti- 
domestic  feeling  were  not  in  the  background.  If  we 
seek  for  the  most  striking  features  of  woman's  work 
here  and  abroad,  it  would  seem  that  the  aim  of  the 
Gei  man  woman  is  to  further  the  interests  of  the  house- 
hold and  the  American  to  escape  from  the  household." 

It  is  a  striking  fact  that  in  almost  every  instance 
the  students  who  have  written  on  the  subject  place  the 
lion's  share  of  the  fault  with  the  employer.  What 
inference  shall  we  draw?  It  reminds  us  of  a  School 
of  Housekeeping  which  was  started  to  train  employes, 
but  after  a  two  years'  study  of  conditions  it  was 
changed  to  a  course  for  employers  in  recognition  of 
the  fact  that  they,  first,  needed  training. 

I  quote  below  from  a  few  of  the  papers : 

"All  who  have  help  do  not  need  it,  many  can  ill 
afford  it.  Some  time  ago  I  heard  the  eldest  daughter 


583 


182  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

of  a  family  of  five  girls  urging  her  mother  to  get  a 
servant  since  they  were  now  in  a  large  house.  The 
mother  asked  what  a  servant  would  do  in  a  family 
of  so  many  girls.  In  reply  the  girl  said,  'we  shan't 
be  considered  anybody  if  we  don't  have  a  servant/ 

"It  is  in  a  spirit  like  this  that  much  of  the  trouble 
lies.  When  women  are  willing  themselves  to  learn 
the  art  of  good  housekeeping  and  are  willing  to  do  a 
part  of  it,  no  matter  how  small  the  share,  to  show  the 
interest,  and  then  by  kindness,  gentleness  and  thought- 
fulness  seek  to  help  the  servants  along  in  the  world, 
the  situation  will  be  greatly  improved." 

It  is  the  women  with  this  spirit  and  attitude  who 
are  having  least  trouble. 

"I  always  employ  intelligent  help  and  do  by  them 
as  I  wish  to  be  done  by.  When  a  young  girl  is  intel- 
ligent one  has  splendid  material  to  work  with  in  train- 
ing her  to  do  as  you  would  your  own  daughter. 

"I  have  had  help,  who,  after  leaving  my  home  when 
I  needed  help  no  longer,  would  return  at  odd  times 
for  a  half  day  when  they  thought  I  stood  in  need 
and  offer  to  give  me  their  time  without  pay,  wishing 
thus  to  show  their  appreciation  of  my  kindness  toward 
them.  I  believe  my  success  is  due  to  consideration 
and  thoughtfulness  of  their  little  fancies. 

"Thoughtfulness  goes  a  great  way  in  winning  the 
love  of  one's  help.  When  I  do  my  shopping  I  always 
remember  my  help  as  any  other  member  of  my  family, 
not  with  the  thought  of  being  repaid  in  services,  but 
through  kindness.  I  have  no  patience  with  the  person 


584 


DOMESTIC  SERVICE  183 

who  does  another  a  kindness  merely  to  gain  some 
selfish  point." 

One  woman  attributes  her  success  to  personal  at- 
tachment and  a  consequent  desire  to  please.  She 
says: 

"So  few  have  any  idea  of  how  to  buy  clothes  or  get 
any  value  for  their  money  that  I  made  it  a  point  to 
show  them  how  they  could  have  good  clothes  inside 
and  out  instead  of  the  showy  things  they  were  hav- 
ing. They  appreciated  the  interest  I  took  in  them. 
I  think  that  women  who  employ  are  themselves  largely 
responsible  for  the  conditions  of  domestic  affairs. 
Reprimanding  before  others,  constant  nagging  and 
giving  few  liberties  are  the  methods  of  many." 

"Most  women  in  service  change  in  the  hope  of  'bet- 
tering' themselves,  which  is  laudable  but  often  disap- 
pointing. It  would  seem  profitable  for  employers  to 
devise  a  scheme  of  increasing  wages  at  stated  inter- 
vals until  a  certain  point  is  reached,  after  that  a  sum 
as  yearly  reward  for  continued  service.  I  knew  a 
family  where  some  such  plan  has  been  followed  for 
a  number  of  years  with  great  success.  The  lack  of 
promotion  in  household  service  must  be  deadening  to 
ambition." 

An  Iowa  student  writes : 

"My  observation  has  been  that  well  ordered  house- 
holds and  households  where  the  servants  know  just 
what  they  must  do  and  be  held  responsible  for,  have 
been  more  successful  even  though  the  work  was  more 


585 


184  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

arduous  than  homeG  where  there  was  no  system,  the 
mistress  capricious  and  all  sorts  of  personal  service 
was  required.  I  believe  that  when  housekeeping  be- 
comes a  business,  women  will  have  trusted  and  valued 
employes  as  do  their  husbands." 

HELP  BY  THE  HOUR 

Here  is  an  interesting  experience  of  help  by  the 
hour  contributed  by  the  Director  of  the  School.  "After 
our  raw  boned,  unprepossessing,  though  faithful  Irish 
girl  married  a  German  with  four  children  (to  her 
subsequent  regret)  we  had  the  usual  string  of  unsatis- 
factory maids,  so  we  decided  to  try  help  by  the  hour 
as  recommended  in  Household  Management.  The  fol- 
lowing 'ad'  was  put  into  an  evening  paper : 

''WANTED — A  helper  for  light  housework  from  8 
to  12  every  morning.  No  washing.  Pay  $4.50  a  week. 
Extra  pay  for  extra  time. 

"We  expected  to  have  only  a  few  applicants,  but 
that  same  evening,  which  was  cold  and  rainy,  ten  ap- 
plied and  during  the  next  two  days  the  number  was 
raised  to  over  fifty.  The  first  applicant  was  accepted 
and  while  she  proved  fairly  satisfactory,  some  of  the 
others  who  applied  looked  more  promising.  After 
about  two  months  we  put  in  another  advertisement 
asking  for  service  from  7:30  to  12:00;  pay,  $4.00  a 
week.  This  time  we  had  forty  applicants.  After 
about  six  months  we  advertised  again,  making  the 
hours  from  7:30  to  12:30,  pay  $3.50  per  week.  This 
third  time  we  had  about  thirty  applicants.  Under  the 


586 


HELP  BY  THE  HOUR  185 

last  conditions  the  rate  of  pay  comes  down  to  10  cents 
an  hour. 

"This  experience  would  seem  to  prove  conclusively 
that,  in  Chicago  at  least,  there  is  no  lack  of  women 
willing  to  do  housework,  while  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  obtain  a  satisfactory  servant  at  $5.00  a  week.  Over 
1 20  women  in  our  locality  were  anxious  for  practically 
the  same  employment  under  different  conditions. 

"The  arrangement  was  not  satisfactory  as  to  hours, 
so  we  made  the  arrangement  with  the  present  helper  to 
come  at  8  o'clock  and  stay  until  n  and  come  again 
from  4  130  to  7  130  p.  m.  every  week  day,  and  on  Sun- 
day from  10  until  2  o'clock.  This  makes  forty  hours 
per  week  regularly,  the  rate  of  pay  being  as  before, 
10  cents  per  hour.  The  worker  lives  within  a  ten- 
minute  walk. 

"We  have  a  laundress  one  day  a  week  who  does 
the  washing  and  makes  a  start  on  the  ironing,  which 
the  helper  finishes  during  the  week.  She  receives 
$1.50  for  nine  hours'  work. 

"Breakfast  is  a  simple  meal  with  us.  When  we 
have  cooked  cereal  it  is  cooked  the  night  before. 
Fruit,  eggs  or  bacon,  coffee  and  toast  complete  the 
meal,  which  is  easily  prepared  in  less  than  half  an 
hour. 

"Breakfast  is  finished  when  the  helper  arrives  in 
the  morning.  She  makes  the  beds,  dusts  the  floors 
and  cleans  the  bath  room.  Then  clears  off  the  break- 
fast dishes,  washes  them  and  straightens  the  kitchen 


587 


i86  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

and  dining  room  and  is  ready  for  the  ironing  or  for 
any  special  cleaning.  She  leaves  the  table  set  for 
lunch  and  goes  home  to  her  own  lunch.  In  the  after- 
noon the  helper  washes  up  the  luncheon  dishes  which 
have  been  rinsed  and  left  in  the  kitchen ;  prepares 
dinner  and  serves  it  at  6:15.  She  usually  gets  the 
dinner  dishes  washed  and  leaves  the  table  set  for 
breakfast  by  7:30,  but  sometimes  has  to  stay  half  an 
hour  extra  if  dinner  is  late. 

"When  we  wish  to  go  out  in  the  evening  we  have 
to  leave  someone  with  the  children,  so  the  helper  is 
kept  until  we  return,  or  if  especially  late,  she  stays 
all  night  for  25  cents  extra.  The  extra  time  runs  from 
nothing  to  $1.00  a  week,  according  to  circumstances. 

"Our  experience  has  been  that  this  is  a  much  less 
expensive  arrangement  than  paying  a  maid,  who  sleeps 
and  eats  in  the  house  and  does  the  laundry  work,  $5.00 
a  week.  The  helper  has  no  meals  in  our  house  unless 
she  stays  over  time,  in  which  case  10  cents  is  deducted 
for  the  food  and  time  spent. 

"According  to  the  prize  schedules  published  in  the 
department  of  'The  Housekeeper  and  Her  Helper'  in 
the  Ladies'  Home  Journal  for  September,  '06,  in  a 
one-servant  household  the  working  time  of  the  maid 
was  about  70  hours  per  week — a  fair  average.  This 
allows  for  two  afternoons  a  week  off  and  the  even- 
ings after  the  evening  meal  is  cleared  away  but  does 
not  take  into  account  the  time  spent  by  the  maid  in 
eating  her  own  meals.  This  might  fairly  be  reckoned 


588 


HELP  BY  THE  HOUR  187 

at  seven  hours  a  week,  leaving  a  balance  of  63  hours 
spent  in  actual  work.  In  most  households  the  food 
which  the  maid  consumes  could  not  be  reckoned  at  less 
than  30  cents  a  day  or  say  $2.00  a  week.  •  If  the  maid 
receives  $5.00  or  even  $4.50  a  week  in  wages,  it  is  ap- 
parent that  her  services  cost  over  10  cents  an  hour 
for  the  time  actually  spent  in  work,  allowing  nothing 
for  the  rent  of  her  room  and  extra  supplies  and  waste. 

"Our  experience  has  been  that  food  bills  are  a  third 
less  ($10  to  $12  per  month)  than  when  we  had  a  resi- 
dent maid.  This  is  accounted  for  in  part  from  the 
bills  have  averaged  $i  a  month  less  than  before.  Then 
we  have  the  use  of  the  room  which  the  maid  would 
occupy  and  do  use  it.  The  proportional  rental  for  the 
room  might  be  reckoned  at  $4  or  $5  per  month. 

"With  our  family  of  five — two  children  and  a  baby 
— housekeeping  is  a  much  more  difficult  problem  than 
in  the  average  household.  We  live  in  a  heated  seven- 
room  apartment,  hot  water  and  janitor  service  fur- 
nished. In  summer  the  washing  is  appalling  and 
sometimes  the  flat  work  is  sent  to  the  laundry.  It 
seems  as  if  double  the  amount  of  cleaning  were  neces- 
sary in  a  soft  coal  city  like  Chicago  compared  with  that 
in  a  suburb  of  Boston.  Certainly  a  third  more  clean- 
ing is  required. 

"Our  experience  has  been  that  those  who  apply 
for  work  are  much  more  intelligent  as  a  class  than  the 
general  run  of  servants  and  that  they  work  very  much 
more  rapidly  and  efficiently.  More  careful  planning 


589 


1 88  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

and  more  forethought  is  necessary  than  with  'all  the 
time'  help.  The  feeling  of  relief  comes,  however,  be- 
cause we  know,  and  our  helper  knows,  that  plenty 
others  to  fill  her  flace  can  be  found  if  she  is  not  satis- 
fied with  the  work,  or  if  she  does  not  come  up  to  our 
requirements.  So  far  as  our  family  is  concerned  we 
feel  that  the  servant  problem  has  been  solved." 

SYSTEMS  OF  WORK 

Two  systems  of  work  for  the  week  have  seemed 
especially  suggestive.  In  the  first  the  housekeeper 
does  her  own  work.  I  am  particularly  impressed  with 
the  wisdom  of  the  plan  for  Monday.  It  is  always 
harder  to  have  washing  come  on  Monday  than  on  any 
other  day.  It  is  simply  a  long-honored  custom.  We 
need  to  break  away  from  such  if  they  are  not  sensible. 
Extra  cleaning  is  needed  Monday  when  none  is  done 
on  Sunday. 

SCHEDULE 

Monday — Pick-up  day  after  Sunday.  Brush  Sunday  clothes 
and  put  away.  Clean  bath  room  and  put  clothes  to  soak 
for  washing. 

Tuesday — Washing  and  cleaning  kitchen. 

Wednesday — Ironing,  and  arranging  clothes  to  be  mended. 

Thursday — Clean  bed  rooms  and  hall.     Sew  or  mend. 

Friday — Clean  sitting  room,  parlor  and  dining  room.  Bake 
bread. 

Saturday — Clean  kitchen,  lamps.     Cooking. 

Most  households  consist  of  several  departments.  In 
this  there  are  two  maids  and  a  laundress  once  a  week. 
The  duties  of  the  housemaid  are  :  Every  day  (if  win- 
ter), close  ventilators,  see  that  registers  are  open.  Get 


590 


SYSTEMS  OF  WORK  189 

dining  room  ready  for  breakfast,  taking  out  to  kitchen 
dishes  needing  to  be  heated.  If  summer,  open  win- 
dows, arrange  living  room.  Serve  breakfast.  Clear 
table,  leaving  dishes  rinsed  and  prepared  to  be  washed. 
The  bed  rooms,  which  have  been  left  ready,  bed 
clothes,  airing  and  windows  opened  by  occupants  are 
put  in  order.  Breakfast  dishes  washed. 

SCHEDULE 

Monday    Morning — Two    of    the    bedrooms    are    swept    and 

"thorough  cleaned.'' 
Tuesday  Morning — This  maid  irons  the  table  line,  small  pieces, 

napkins,  doileys  from  her  own  choice. 
Wednesday      Morning — Bathroom      and      another      bedroom 

"thorough  cleaned." 
Thursday — Silver  cleaned. 
Friday — Drawing  room. 
Saturday — Library  and  dining  room  and  hall. 

"Luncheon  served  at  i,  dinner  at  6.  Each  girl  has 
every  other  evening.  Each  has  an  afternoon.  We 
have  dinner  on  Sunday  at  i  130,  after  which  both  maids 
have  the  rest  of  the  day  and  evening,  only  on  extraor- 
dinary occasions  being  asked  to  return  for  any  sup- 
per. Then  if  possible,  each  is  asked  in  turn.  The 
housemaid  is  responsible  for  keeping  the  china  closets 
in  order  and  her  kitchen  (in  other  houses  it  would  be 
'butler's  pantry.') 

'The  cook  prepares  three  meals  per  day,  breakfast 
at  7:45,  luncheon  at  i,  dinner  at  6.  She  is  responsible 
for  the  cleanliness  and  order  of  the  kitchen,  the  ad- 
joining pantry  and  ice  closet,  the  back  porch  and 
maid's  water  closet.  She  assists  the  laundress  with 


591 


igo  HOUSEHOLD  MANAGEMENT 

the  ironing.  She  arranges  her  own  time  for  her  clean- 
ing, reserving  Saturday  for  extra  baking.  The  fur- 
nace man  cares  for  the  furnaces,  sifting  also  ashes 
from  range  and  cares  for  walks,  shoveling  snow  in 
winter,  cutting  grass  in  summer,  also  works  by  hour 
at  washing  windows,  beating  rugs,  etc." 

VALUE  OF  THE  INDIVIDUAL  HOME 

"The  home  is  the  center  of  all  that  is  best  in  life. 
It  is  the  greatest  moulder  of  character.  All  the  quali- 
ties of  Christian  manhood  and  womanhood,  love,  rev- 
erence, unselfishness,  forbearance,  order,  regard  for 
property  and  for  the  rights  of  others,  should  find  their 
beginnings  here.  The  strength  of  civic  and  natural 
life,  respect  for  government,  honest  administration  of 
public  trusts,  depend  in  large  degree  upon  the  high 
ideals  of  the  home  life.  Family  traditions  are  better 
fostered.  The  home  is  the  housewife's  'place  of  busi- 
ness.' 

"Whatever  affects  the  home  affects  the  state.  The 
moral  standing  of  a  nation  depends  upon  the  home  life 
of  its  individuals.  We  cannot  get  a  true  idea  of  the 
sacredness  of  life  without  having  some  place,  however 
humble,  where  high  standards  of  living  govern  the  ac- 
tions of  its  individuals.  We  have  poems  that  stir  the 
emotions  and  quicken  into  activity  the  best  interests 
on  the  subject  of  'Home,'  but  what  poet  ever  attempted 
to  stir  the  hearts  of  a  nation  to  heroic  deeds  by  writ- 
ing a  poem  on  the  'Boarding  House.'  " 


592 


HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK. 


TT  IS  the  minority,  not  the  majority  of  people,  who 
^  can  afford  the  luxury  of  a  trained  nurse,  especially 
in  cases  of  protracted  and  chronic  illnesses. 

These  lessons  are  intended  to  help  those  who  cannot 
always  command  the  services  of  a  trained  nurse,  to 
teach  how  to  carry  out  the  doctor's  orders,  what  to 
look  for  and  observe  in  his  absence,  so  that  by  giving 
him  a  definite  report  of  what  the  patient's  condition 
has  been  he  may  be  able  to  work  more  understand- 
ingly,  be  able  to  Diagnose  the  disease  more  quickly, 
be  surer  of  how  the  patient  is  progressing,  and  of  the 
influence  the  medicine  ordered  is  having.  And  to 
teach  above  all  how  to  handle  and  move  patients  with- 
out tiring  them,  how  to  render  them  comfortable,  there- 
by ensuring  rest  of  nerve  and  body. 

What  to  do  in  illness  is  purposely  omitted  in  these 
lessons,  except  in  very  simple  troubles  and  in  cases  of 
emergency.  The  "what  to  do"  is  for  the  doctor  to  de- 
cide, the  "how  to  do"  for  the  mother  to  know.  Incal- 
culable harm  is  continually  being  done  by  the  latter 
encroaching  on  the  doctor's,  prerogative.  Many  a 
mother  has  treated  her  child  for  supposed  colic  and 
only  called  the  doctor  in  after  some  days  when  the 
pain  has  refused  to  yield  to  her  treatment.  In  very 


Aims  of 
the  Lessons 


The  Doctor' 
Province. 


593 


2  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

.many  cases  the  treatment  has  been  the  worst  thing 
possible  for,  what  has  proved  to  be  appendicitis,  gastro- 
enteritis, or  other  serious  abdominal  trouble. 

what  There  are  few  who  can  afford  to  run  up  the  doctor's 
the  Should  bill  by  calling  him  in  unnecessarily.  To  avoid  this, 

Know  and  yet  not  run  the  risk  of  endangering  the  lives  of 
those  entrusted  to  her  care,  especially  the  little  chil- 
dren who  cannot  tell  clearly  where  the  pain  is  or  how 
badly  they  feel,  it  is  imperative  that  every  mother 
should  know  how  to  count  the  pulse,  take  the  tempera- 
ture, and  be  cognizant  of  at  least  a  few  of  the  primary 
symptoms  of  the  most  common  diseases,  especially  the 
contagious  ones,  where  the  lack  of  early  recognition 
and  isolation  may  imperil  the  health  or  life  of  others. 
The  following  table  gives  the  primary  symptoms, 
period  of  incubation,  and  usual  time  required  for  iso- 
lation of  the  most  common  contagious  diseases.  The 
number  of  days  between  exposure  to  and  the  develop- 
ment of  a  disease  is  called  the  period  of  incubation. 

FIRST  SYMPTOMS  IN  SOME  OF   THE  MOST  COMMON 
DISEASES 

CONTAGIOUS   DISEASES 


Mumps    Days  14-21    Swelling     of     the  From     day     when 

average  18        glands     between  swelling  first  ap- 

ear  and  jaw,  on  pears  till  10  days 

either     side     or  after,    usually    3 

both.  weeks. 


594 


FIRST  SYMPTOMS  OF  DISEASES 
CONTAGIOUS    DISEASES    (Continued) 


DISEASE 

Chicken- 
pox 


German 
Measles 


PERIOD  OF 
INCUBATION 

Days  12-16 
average  14 


Days  6- 1 8 
average  14 


Measles 


Days  9-16 
average  12 


Small- 
pox 


Days  9-16 
average  16 


SYMPTOMS 

Slight  fever,  after 
24  hours  small 
pimples  appear 
on  back  and 
face. 

Very  slight  fever, 
rash  (if  any) 
appears  first  on 
face,  may  only 
last  a  few  hours. 
There  may  be 
headache  and 
nausea. 

Sneezing,  running 
from  eyes  and 
nose,  face  swol- 
len, sore  throat, 
cough,  f  e  V  e  r 
gradually  rising, 
rash  appears 
first  on  face  and 
neck. 

Chill,  rapidly  ris- 
ing temperature, 
intense  head- 
ache, pain  in 
back  and  legs, 
rash,  small,  red, 
hard  pimples, 
appearing  first 
on  face  and 
wrists. 


TIME  OF 
ISOLATION 

From  onset  until 
last  crust  has 
fallen,  usually  14 
days. 


From  2  days  be- 
fore rash  till 
symptoms  are 
gone.  Some- 
times  2  weeks. 


From  first  ca- 
tarrhal  s  y  m  p  - 
toms  until  des- 
quamation  ceas- 
es, usually  .24 
days. 


From  onset  until 
last  crust  has 
fallen,  usually  6 
weeks. 


595 


Children's 
Diseases 


HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

CONTAGIOUS    DISEASES    (Continued) 


DISEASE 


PERIOD  OF 
INCUBATION 


Scarlet-    Days  1-7 
fever         average  7 


TIME  OF 
ISOLATION 

From  appearance 
of  rash  till  des- 
quamation  has 
entirely  ceased ; 
usually  6  weeks. 


Diph- 
theria 


Days  1-6 
average  6 


From  onset  till 
germs  have  en- 
t  i  r  e  1  y  disap- 
peared. 


SYMPTOMS 

Sudden  vomiting, 
sometimes  phill 
or  convulsions, 
high  tempera- 
ture, sore  throat, 
tongue  coated  on 
edges,  bright  red 
in  center,  gener- 
al malaise,  typ- 
ical rash  appear- 
ing first  on  chest 
and  shoulders. 

Especially  in  the 
beginning  of  the 
disease  the  tem- 
perature is  not 
as  high  'as  in 
tonsillitis ;  head- 
ache, nausea, 
sore  throat,  with 
white  patches  on 
the  tonsils. 


As  it  is  sometimes  difficult  even  for  the  physician  to  dis- 
tinguish between  diphtheria  and  tonsillitis  without  taking  a 
culture  for  examination,  when  white  patches  appear  on  a 
child's  throat  it  should  be  isolated  and  a  doctor  called  in 
at  once. 

DISEASES    NOT    CONTAGIOUS 

Colic.  Give  castor  oil,  then  a  few  drops  of  pepper- 
mint in  hot  water  (never  soothing  syrup)  ;  keep  the 
baby  warm  and  lying  on  his  abdomen.  Gentle  rubbing 
in  a  circular  direction,  and  the  application  of  hot  flan- 
nels will  generally  .relieve  it.  If  not,  a  physician 


596 


FIRST  SYMPTOMS  OF  DISEASES  5 

should  be  notified  as  continued  abdominal  pain  is  a 
symptom  of  many  serious  disorders. 

Cholera  Infantum.'  Caused  by  over  or  improper 
feeding,  heat  and  impure  air.  Symptoms :  Diarrhoea 
and  intestinal  pain,  excessive  thirst,  but  no  appetite. 
Try  no  home  remedies,  seek  medical  aid  at  once. 

Intestinal  Obstruction.  Symptoms :  Obstinate  con- 
stipation, followed  by  vomiting  and  abdominal  disten- 
tion ;  usually  not  much  temperature.  Get  medical  ad- 
vice promptly,  as  immediate  operation  may  be  im- 
perative. 

Convulsions.  Caused  by  indigestion,  worms,  difficult 
dentition,  or  fright.  Muscular  twitchings  coming  on 
suddenly,  sometimes  even  during  sleep.  Send  for  the 
doctor  immediately,  but  do  not  await  his  arrival  to  put 
the  baby  in  a  hot  bath.  Give  castor  oil  and  an  enema, 
according  to  directions  given  on  page  55,  using,  if 
the  child  is  small,  a  rubber  catheter  for  a  rectal  tube. 

Pneumonia.  Primary  symptoms :  Chill  followed 
by  high  temperature,  cough,  pain  in  chest,  expectora- 
tion which  gradually  becomes  rust  colored  and  bloody. 
Put  patient  to  bed  and  send  for  the  doctor  imme- 
diately. 

Typhoid  Fever.  Primary  symptoms :  Temperature 
rising  a  little  higher  each  day,  nausea,  headache,  pain 
in  back  and  limbs,  nose  bleed,  sometimes  constipation, 
sometimes  diarrhoea,  watery,  yellow  stools,  abdominal 
pain.  Put  patient  to  bed  and  only  allow  liquid  diet 
until  the  doctor  comes. 


597 


6  HOME  CARE  OF  THE' SICK 

Meningitis.  May  develop  suddenly  with  continuous 
convulsions,  or  come  on  gradually  with  symptoms  of 
fretfulness,  restlessness,  headache,  vomiting,  and  in- 
tolerance of  light  and  noise.  Put  patient  to  bed  in  a 
quiet,  dark,  well-aired  room  and  only  allow  liquid 
diet  till  the  doctor  comes. 

Croup.  There  are  two  forms  of  croup — the  true  or 
membranous  and  the  false  or  spasmodic.  The  former 
is  always  associated  with  diphtheria,  but  since  the  use 
of  antitoxine  it  has  become  a  much  rarer  complication, 
seldom  occurring  when  antitoxine  is  used.  It  comes 
on  gradually. 

False  Croup  False  croup  comes  on  suddenly,  generally  in  the 
middle  of  the  night ;  it  is  as  a  rule  the  result  of  ex- 
posure to  damp  and  cold,  excitement,  or  indigestion. 

The  spasm  is  the  result  of  the  spasmodic  closing  of 
the  glottis.  Though  not  dangerous,  it  is  very  distress- 
ing and  calls  for  immediate  treatment.  Relief  usually 
can  be  obtained  best  by  applying  hot  fomentations  to 
the  throat,  inducing  vomiting  by  giving  a  drink  of 
tepid  water  and  salt — a  teaspoonful  to  the  glass — and 
by  steam  inhalations. 

The  most  effective  way  of  giving  inhalations  is  with 
the  croup  kettle  and  canopy.  The  quickest  way  to  im- 
provise these  is  to  tie  an  umbrella  to  the  top  of  the 
child's  crib  and  over  this  drape  two  sheets,  pinning 
them  to  the  sides  of  the  bed.  They  must  overlap 
about  one  inch  and  hang  down  far  enough,  over  the 
sides  and  back  of  the  bed  to  be  tucked  under  the  mat- 


598 


DISEASES  7 

tress.  The  lower  third  of  the  front  space  is  left  open 
for  the  admission  of  fresh  air.  Water  is  kept  boiling 
in  a  kettle  at  the  back  of  the  bed  by  a  gas  or  oil  stove 


Canopy  for  Giving  Steam  Inhalations  Made  with  a  Sheet 
and  Umbrella 

and  a  cone  of  cardboard  or  stiff  paper  is  attached  to 
the  spout  and  inserted  between  the  overhanging  sheets 
to  carry  the  steam  over  the  child's  head. 


599 


8 


HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 


Minor 
Troubles 


In  nearly  all  cases  of  slight  indisposition,  even 
diarrhoea,  a  cathartic  such  as  castor  oil  or  calomel,  fol- 
lowed by  salts  such  as  Rochelle  salts,  magnesium  sul- 


Rear  View  of  Croup  Canopy  Showing  Stove,  Kettle,  and  Tube 
for  Steam 

phate,  or  seidlitz  powder,  five  or  six  hours  later,  to- 
gether with  rest  and  fluid  or  soft  diet  is  indicated. 
Give  as  little  medicine  as  possible  without  a  doctor's 
order. 


600 


THE  CHOICE,  FURNISHING  AND  CARE  OF  THE  SICK> 
ROOM 

Sunshine,  pure  fresh  air,  and  freedom  from  noise 
and  odors  are  the  principal  things  to  be  considered  in 
choosing  the  sick-room.  When  possible  it  is  advisa- 
ble to  have  a  room  with  a  southern  exposure.  If  there 
is  a  fireplace  or  grate  in  the  room  so  much  the  better, 
?  3  a  chimney  is  an  excellent  medium  for  ventilation. 

Despite  the  fact  that  the  sick-room  at  the  top  .of 
the  house  gives  many  stairs  to  climb,  it  is  better  to 
have  it  there.  It  is  further  removed  from  the  noises 
of  the  street  and  house  and  the  air  is  generally  purer. 

Only  necessary  articles  of  furniture  should  be  re-      Furnishings 
tained ;  all  heavy  hangings,  draperies,  and  upholstered 
furniture  must  be  removed.    Care  must  be  taken,  how- 
ever, that  the  room  is  not  made  too  bare  and  unat-   , 
tractive.     Short,  washable  curtains ;  clean,  white  linen 
covers  for  the  tables ;  a  few  f/esh  flowers    will  help 
to  make  the  sick-room  bright  and  cheerful.     Flowers 
should  be  removed  at  night,  the  water  they  are  in 
changed  daily,  and  they  should  never  be  tolerated  after 
they  begin  to  fade. 

The  ideal  bed  is  iron  or  brass ;  single  or  three-  The  Bed 
quarter  width.  The  double  bed  is  unadvisable,  for 
owing  to  its  width,  the  mattress  is  apt  to  sink  in  the 
middle  and  it  is  then  almost  impossible  to  keep  the 
under  sheets  drawn  tightly  enough  to  prevent  wrinkles. 
The  bed  should  be  at  least  twenty-five  inches  in 


601 


10 


HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 


The 
Mattress 


Lighting 


height,  but  if  it  is  not,  can  easily  be  made  so  by  plac- 
ing heavy  blocks  of  wood  under  each  leg.  Hollows 
about  two  inches  in  depth  should  be  made  in  the 
blocks  to  fit  the  ends  of  the  legs.  Especially  if  the 
patient  is  liable  to  be  ill  long,  the  trouble  of  doing  this 
is  well  repaid  by  the  added  convenience  in  lifting  and 
working  over  the  patient. 

A  hair  mattress  is  by  far  the  best  kind  to  have ;  the 
feather  one  the  worst.  Not  only  is  the  latter  too  heat- 
ing, but  when  occupied  it  is  almost  impossible  to  make 
the  bed  properly. 

The  bed  should  be  placed  far  enough  from  the  walls 
to  give  access  on  all  sides,  care  being  taken  to  avoid 
having  the  light  in  the  patient's  eyes. 

The  best  plan  is  to  have  the  window  behind  the 
bed ;  then  more  sun  and  light  can  be  admitted  without 
disturbing  the  patient.  Except  in  certain  cases,  it  is 
a  mistake  to  keep  the  s^ick-room  darkened. 

Besides  the  bed,  there  should  be  two  or  three  chairs 
in-  the  room ;  one  a  comfortable  arm  chair  with  high 
back.  If  upholstered,  it  should  be  encased  in  a  pretty, 
light,  washable  cover.  Rocking  chairs  should  never 
be  permitted  in  the  sick-room ;  when  sitting  in  them 
one  is  almost  sure  to  rock,  and  the  motion  is  very 
apt  to  irritate  the  patient. 

Two  tables  are  necessary ;  on  one  should  be  kept 
writing  material,  where  the  doctor  can  write  his  orders 
and  the  nurse  keep  the  recorj  of  the  patient's  condi- 


602 


THE  SICK  ROOM  n 

tion.  The  second  table  can  be  near  the  bedside  to  hold 
the  patient's  bell;  also  her  food-tray;  the  latter  must 
always  be  removed  as  soon  as  the  meal  is  finished. 
Never  leave  empty  or  half  empty  glasses  of  milk,  cups 
of  broth,  etc.,  standing  by  the  patient. 

There  is  a  bedside  table — made  on  purpose  for  use      Bedside 
in  the  sick-room — which  is  very  convenient.     The  top      Table 
extends  over  the  bed  in  front  of  the  patient;  it  is  ad- 
justable and  has  a  foot  piece  which  goes  under  the 
bed  and  keeps  the  table  from  upsetting.  (See  page  30.) 

Medicine  bottles  and  all  necessary  utensils  should 
be  kept  in  an  adjoining  room,  if  possible. 

The  floor  should  be  swept  with  a  soft  broom  cov- 
ered with  cheese  cloth,  or  other  soft  material  which 
is  free  from  lint.  Carpets  are  very  objectionable; 
small  rugs  which  can  be  removed  and  shaken  daily, 
being  preferable.  If  the  carpet  must  remain,  see  that 
it  is  kept  well  dusted,  and  that  no  dust  is  raised  while 
doing  so.  The  best  way  to  do  this  to  to  sweep  with 
a  damp  broom,  going  over  it  afterwards  with  a  damp 
cloth  pinned  over  the  broom.  Do  not  have  this  too  wet 
or  it  will  injure  the  carpet. 

When  it  is  necessary  for  the  nurse  to  sleep  in  the 
room,  the  cot  is  the  most  convenient  arrangement,  as 
it  is  comfortable,  inexpensive  and  can  be  easily  re- 
moved in  the  day  time. 

Never  use  a  feather  duster  but  clean,  soft  dust  cloths      Dusting 
which  may  be  washed  out  every  day.     Except  for  the 


603 


12 


HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 


Ventilation 


Airing 


varnished  furniture,  it  is  better  to  have  the  duster 
slightly  damp,  as  this  will  prevent  scattering  of  the 
dust. 

The  air  in  the  sick-room  must  be  as  pure  as  the  air 
outside.  The  value  of  fresh  air  as  an  aid  to  recovery 
is  sadly  underrated.  The  open  fireplace  is  one  of  the 
best  methods  of  ventilation.  A  current  of  air  can  be 
created  in  summer  by  placing  a  lamp  or  a  candle  in 
the  chimney  place,  and  in  winter  a  wood  or  a  coal  fire. 
Next  to  a  fireplace,  an  open  stove  gives  the  best  means 
of  ventilation. 

Window  ventilation  is  best  obtained  by  double  win- 
dows with  double  sashes.  -The  lower  sash  of  the  outer 
window  is  raised  about  two  feet;  the  upper  sash  of 
the  inner  window  lowered  about  the  same  distance. 
The  passage  of  air  being  thus  directed  upward,  a  di- 
rect draught  upon  the  patient  will  not  be  produced,  if 
windows  and  doors  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  room 
are  kept  closed.  Where  there  are  single  windows,  the 
same  effect  can  be  obtained  by  tacking  the  lower  end 
of  a  piece  of  cotton,  about  twelve  inches  in  depth,  to 
the  frame  of  the  upper  sash  and  to  the  top  of  the  win- 
dow frame;  then  lower  the  sash  about  ten  inches. 
When  less  air  is  desired  the  lower  sash  can  be  raised 
and  a  board  fitted  to  the  opening;  the  air  then  passes 
upward  between  the  sashes. 

In  addition  to  this  slight  continuous  ventilation,  the 
window  must  be  opened  and  the  entire  air  of  the  sick- 
room changed  at  least  twice  a  day.  In  doing  this,  be 


604 


CARE  OF  THE  PATIENT  13 

careful  that  there  is  no  draught  and  that  the  patient 
has  extra  blankets.  If  there  is  no  screen  at  hand,  a 
large  umbrella  will  prove  quite  effective  in  protecting 
the  patient's  head  from  the  direct  current  of  air.  If 
it  is  necessary  to  warm  the  air  before  it  enters  the 
patient's  room,  the  window  in  an  adjoining,  well-heat- 
ed room  may  be  opened,  the  door  between  the  rooms 
being  left  slightly  ajar.  The  corridor  or  bath  room 
(especially  the  bath  room)  should  not  be  used  for 
this  purpose. 

Hard  coal  should  be  used  if  the  room  is  heated  by 
a  stove  on  account  of  its  freedom  from  dust. 

In  removing  the  ashes,  they  should  be  sprinkled  with 
water  first  to  prevent  flying,  then  quietly  shoveled  up. 
The  coal  can  be  added  in  paper  bags  filled  outside, 
thus  avoiding  all  noise  likely  to  disturb  the  patient. 

The  temperature  of  the  sick-room  should  be  68  de- 
grees F  at  night  and  70  degrees  F  during  the  day. 

CARE  OF  THE  PATIENT 

A  few  essential  points  to  be  remembered  in  caring 
for  the  sick  may  be  stated  briefly. 

To  properly  care  for  a  patient  those  undertaking  the 
responsibility  of  the  nursing  must  take  proper  care  of 
themselves.  Rest,  recreation,  and  out  of  door  exer- 
cise are  positive  necessities. 

If  the  same  member  of  the  family  has  both  day  and 
night  nursing  to  do  she  should  always  dress  herself 
as  comfortably  as  possible  for  the  night.  A  cold  bath 


Fuel 

and 

Ashes 


Care  of 
the  Nurse 


605 


I4  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

in  the  morning,  with  complete  change  of  clothing,  will 
be  found  very  refreshing. 

Dresses  of.  light  wash  material  should  always  be 
worn  when  attending  the  sick, 'but  dresses  and  skirts 
must  never  be  stiffly  starched,  as  the  rustling  noise 
they  make  is  very  annoying  to  patients.  Squeaking 
shoes  are  another  abomination. 
'Nevers"  Never  whisper  in  or  near  the  sick-room. 

Never  discuss  the  patient's  condition  with  her,  or 
with  anyone  else  in  her  hearing. 

Never  tell  the  patient  what  her  temperature,  pulse, 
etc.,  are,  not  even  when  they  are  normal. 

Never  tell  the  patient  what  medication  you  are  giv- 
ing her. 

Never  lean  nor  sit  on  the  patient's  bed,  and  be  care- 
ful not  to  knock  against  it  in  passing. 

When  speaking  to  a  patient  always  stand  in  front 
of  her,  where  she  can  see  you ;  be  particularly  careful 
not  to  speak  to  her  suddenly  from  behind,  for  when 
people  are  ill  and  nervous  they  are  easily  startled. 

Keep  door  and  window  hinges  well  oiled ;  nothing  is 
more  aggravating  than  a  squeaking  door. 

When  windows  rattle,  wedge  them  apart  between  the 
sashes  with  pieces  of  wood  or  newspaper. 

At  Night  Especially  at  night,  or,  rather,  when  getting  ready 
for  the  night,  attention  must  be  paid  to  anything  likely 
to  prove  a  disturbing  element  to  the  patient's  rest. 

Before  the  patient  goes  to  sleep  see  that  you  have 
everything  at  hand  that  you  are  likely  to  need  for  the 


When 
Speaking 


606 


CARE  OF  THE  PATIENT  15 

night :  Extra  blankets — a  shade  for  the  light,  if  neces- 
sary— coal  prepared  in  paper  bags,  as  previously  de- 
scribed— milk — water — all  the  medicines  you  will  re- 
onire — ice,  etc.  Wrapping  the  ice  in  flannel  or  news- 
paper will  keep  it  from  melting.  A  hat  pin  makes  an 
excellent  and  noiseless  ice-pick.  A  large  tin  pan,  en- 
veloped in  a  blanket,  will  make  a  serviceable  refriger- 
ator in  which  to  keep  your  ice,  broth,  milk  and  water. 

A  shade  for  the  lamp  or  gas  can  be  easily  made  out 
of  green  or  other  dark  colored  cambric,  but  be  sure 
that  the  globe  over  which  it  is  pinned  is  far  enough 
from  the  flame  to  avoid  scorching  the  cambric. 

An  uncomfortable  bed  is  a  great  addition  to  the  mis-      Bed 
eries  of  an  invalid,  therefore,  one  of  the  first  essentials      Makm& 
to  be  learned  is  how  to  make  a  bed. 

The  mattress  is  covered  by  a  sheet,  stretched  tightly 
and  tucked  firmly  as  far  under  it  as  possible-;  folding 
the  corners  like  an  envelope  helps  to  keep  it  firm. 

Another  sheet  called  the  "draw  sheet"  is  also  used  The 
under  the  patient ;  this  is  put  on  with  the  length  across  Draw  sheet 
the  bed,  thus  allowing  a  considerable  fold  under  the 
mattress,  thereby  securing  a  further  means  of  keep- 
ing the  sheet  tight.  When  putting  the  draw  sheet  on 
care  must  be  taken  to  have  it  perfectly  straight;  it  is 
first  tucked  in  on  one  side,  well  under  the  mattress. 
In  tucking  in  the  second  side  it  is  best  to  begin  in  the 
middle,  going  first  towards  the  bottom,  then  from 
the  middle  to  the  top,  pulling  it  very  tightly.  The  top 
sheet  and  blankets  (single  blankets  are  preferable  to 


607 


16  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

double)  should  be  put  on  separately,  the  corners  being 
folded  in,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  under  sheet.  If 
it  is  not  convenient  to  obtain  a  spread  of  dimity,  or 
other  light  material,  it  is  better  to  use  a  sheet,  as  the 
ordinary  spread  is  heavy  and  gives  comparatively  lit- 
tle warmth. 
Protecting  When  it  is  necessary  to  protect  the  mattress  a  rub- 

the  Mattress 

ber  sheet  is  placed  between  the  lower  and  draw  sheets. 
White  double  faced  rubber  is  the  nicest  for  home  use. 
The  single  faced  rubber  will  answer  the  purpose  and 
is  cheaper,  but  it  is  not  so  easily  kept  clean.  Either 
can  be  obtained  at  any  rubber  store. 

When  impossible  to  get  the  regular  rubber  sheet- 
ing thin  oil  cloth,  such  as  is  used  for  covering  tables, 
will  serve.  In  cases  of  emergency,  several  thicknesses 
of  newspapers  may  be  used  until  something  better  can 
be  obtained. 

CHANGING    THE    BED    OF   A   HELPLESS    PATIENT 

Before  starting  to  change  the  bedding  be  sure  that 
you  have  everything  necessary  near  at  hand,  and  that 
the  bed  clothes  are  all  well  aired,  perfectly  dry  and 
warm. 

First  take  off  the  spread,  fold  it  neatly;  next  take 
off  the  top  blanket,  and  hang  it  out  to  air.  Fold  the 
other  blanket  and  upper  sheet  over  the  patient,  leav- 
ing the  ends  just  long  enough  to  cover  her  when  you 
turn  her  over.  This  method  answers  a  threefold  pur- 
pose: (i)  it  has  a  neat  appearance;  (2)  it  replaces  the 


608 


CHANGING  THE  DRAW  SHEET 


i8    '  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

discarded  blanket,  and  (3)  the  clothes  are  not  in  the 
way  while  you  work.  Loosen  the  lower  sheets  by  rais- 
ing the  mattress  with  one  hand  while  drawing  out  the 
sheets  with  the  other.  Raising  the  mattress  is  impor- 
tant, because  the  draw  sheet  has  been  tucked  so  far 
under  the  mattress  that  otherwise  you  risk  not  only 
jolting  the  patient  but  also  tearing  the  sheets.  Re- 
move the  pillows  and  if  the  patient  does  not  object 
to  lying  flat  for  a  while  leave  them  out;  if  she  does, 
one  can  be  replaced.  It  is  necessary  to  take  them  out 
to  turn  them  and  to  make  sure  that  there  are  no  crumbs 
caught  between  them  or  in  the  pillow  cases. 

The  night  gown  is  the  next  thing  changed.  Have 
the  patient  lie  on  her  back  and  flex  her  knees ;  if  she 
is  well  enough  .she  can  easily  raise  herself  while  in  this 
position;  if  not,  place  one  hand  under  the  buttocks 
and  raise  her,  as  you  draw  the  gown  up  with  the  other 
hand,  then  raise  the  shoulders  in  like  manner,  drawing 
the  gown  up  over  them  and  -the  head  before  taking 
out  the  arms. 

In  putting  on  the  clean  gown  roll  the  skirt  up,  and 
put  the  patient's  head  through  the  hole.  Putting  your 
hand  through  one  sleeve  grasp  the  patient's  hand  and 
draw  it  through ;  then  do  likewise  with  the  other  sleeve. 
The  gown  is  then  pulled  down  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  soiled  one  was  taken  off. 

The  easiest  way  to  change  the  under  sheets  is  first 
to  turn  the  patient  on  her  side. 

To  do  this,  stand  on  the  side  towards  which  you  will 


610 


CHANGING  THE  BED  ^  19 

turn  her,  slip  one  hand  over  and  under  her,  with  your 
arm  slightly  crooked,  so  that  the  hand  and  forearm 
will  support  and  control  one  shoulder,  the  elbow  sup- 
port the  back  of  the  head,  and  the  arm  the  other  shoul- 
der. Slip  your  other  arm  under  the  patient  slantwise 
across  the  buttocks,  so  that  the  hand  is  under  the 
small  of  the  back.  In  this  way  the  patient  is  well  sup- 
ported as  you  gently  turn  her  towards  you.  If  there 
is  an  assistant,  one  can  hold  her  thus  while  the  other 
manipulates  the  sheets;  if  not,  and  the  patient  needs 
to  be  supported,  a  pillow  placed  well  up  against  her 
back  will  answer  the  purpose. 

The  sheets  to  be  changed  are  folded  close  to  the 
back  of  .the  patient,  making  the  fold  as  flat  as  pos- 
sible. The  clean  sheet  is  either  folded  fan  shape  or 
rolled  to  its  centre,  the  roll  or  fold,  as  the  case  may 
be,  is  placed  close  to  the  sheet  being  removed,  the 
loose  edge  is  tucked  in,  as  far  under  the  mattress 
as  possible,  the  patient  is  then  rolled  gently  over  on 
to  the  clean  sheet,  the  soiled  one  removed,  and  the  clean 
sheet  well  stretched,  and  tucked  in  according  to  the 
directions  given  in  the  making  of  the  bed. 

The  top  sheet  is  next  changed.  Placing  the  clean 
sheet  over  the  sheet  and  blanket  which  are  still  over 
the  patient;  on  top  of  this  put  the  blanket  which  has 
been  airing,  draw  the  other  blanket  and  sheet  from 
underneath,  then  tuck  in  the  clean  ones,  put  on  the 
second  blanket,  if  one  is  necessary,  then  the  spread, 
and  arrange  the  pillows. 


Turning 

the 

Patient 


611 


20  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

The  draw  sheet,  upper  sheet,  and  night  gown  should 
be  changed  twice  a  day  when  the  patient  is  not  too 
ill ;  if  they  are  not  soiled  when  removed,  air  them 
well,  after  which' they  may.be  used  again. 

When  the  patient  is  not  allowed  to  be  bathed,  her 
back  should  be  washed  with  soap  and  warm  water,, 
rubbed  with  alcohol  and  powdered  with  talcum  pow- 
der. This  should  be  done  while  she  is  turned  on  her 
side  for  the  changing  of  the  sheet.  When  the  night 
gown  is  closed  in  the  back  it  is  sometimes  more  con- 
.  venient  not  to  put  the  clean  gown  on  until  the  pa- 
tient's back  has  been  washed.  In  such  circumstances 
wrap  a  small  shawl  around  the  patient. 

Special  When  for  any  reason  it  is  inadvisable  to  move  the 
patient,  and  it  is  necessary  for  her  to  lie  on  her  back, 
it  is  convenient  to  have  short  gowns,  open  in  the 
back,  buttoned  at  the  back  of  the  neck  and  shoulders. 
The  skirts  can  be  drawn  from  under  the  patient,  enab- 
ling her  to  lie  on  the  sheet,  which  it  is  comparatively 
easy  to  keep  free  from  wrinkles.  Another  important 
advantage  of  the  short  gown  is  the  ease  with  which  it 
can  be  changed.  Large  collars  or  ruffles  at  the  neck 
of  the  gown  are  very  objectionable  in  illness. 

When  changing  the  gown  of  a  patient  whose  arm  is 
disabled,  the  sleeve  should  be  taken  from  the  affected 
arm  last,  and  the  sleeve  of  the  fresh  gown  put  on  first. 

LIFTING  AND  HANDLING  THE  PATIENT 

When  lifting  a  patient  it  is  important  to  stand 
firmly ;  to  do  this  the  feet  should  be  placed  well  apart. 


612 


LIFTING  THE  PATIENT  21 

bracing  one  foot  against  the  leg  of  the  bed.  Try  to 
bend  the  back  as  little  as  possible,  make  the  knees 
do  the  bending.  In  lifting,  endeavor  to  have  the 
weight  come  on  your  shoulders,  not  on  your  back.  For 
example,  when  a  patient  is  to  be  helped  into  a  sitting 
position,  bend  your  knees  till  your  shoulder  is  only 


A  BACK  REST,  CANVAS  COVERED. 

slightly  higher  than  the  patient's,  then  have  her  put  her 
arm  across  your  shoulders,  have  your  shoulder  di- 
rectly under  her  armpit,  your  elbow  supporting  her 
head,  your  hand  under  her  other  armpit — your  other 
hand  is  thus  free  to  arrange  the  pillows.  Now  raise 
the  patient.  By  using  this  method  your  shoulder 
bears  the  burden,  whereas  if  you  attempt  to  raise  the 
patient  by  bending  your  back,  or  if  you  have  the  pa- 
tient's arm  around  your  neck,  the  entire  weight  must 


S13 


22  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

be  sustained  by  your  back,  which  will  soon  become 
strained. 

A  back  rest  should  always  be  provided  when  the 
patient  sits  up  in  bed  for  the  first  time.  Many  varieties 
of  these  are  to  be  had,  and  they  are  inexpensive ;  some 
are  made  entirely  of  wood,  others  have  a  wooden 
framework  with  canvas  stretched  across  it.  A  good 
substitute  for  the  back  rest  is  a  straight  back  chair 
turned  upside  down.  The  pillows  should  be  placed 
across  the  rest  in  such  a  way  that  the  head  will  not 
be  thrown  forward  and  that  the  small  of  the  back  will 
be  well  supported. 

When  the  patient  is  obliged  to  sit  up  all,  or  nearly 
all  the  time,  something  should  be  provided  for  her 
to  brace  her  feet  against.  A  convenient  arrangement 
for  this  purpose  is  a  board  the  same  length  as  the 
width  of  the  bed  and  about  twelve  inches  wide,  placed 
between  double  folds  of  strong  muslin  which  must  be 
long  enough  to  tie  around  the  head  of  the  bed  when 
the  board  is  supporting  the  patient's  feet.  The  board 
may  be  padded  on  one  side  if  desired. 

When  a  patient  has  slipped  down  in  bed  and  needs 
to  be  drawn  up,  place  one  arm  under  the  shoulders 
in  the  usual  crooked  position  so  that  your  elbow  may 
support  her  head,  and^  taking  a  firm  grip  under  the  up- 
per part  of  her  arm,  put  your  other  arm  under  the 
thighs,  and  move  the  patient  gently  upwards.  If  well 
enough  the  patient  can  flex  her  knees  and  help  in  the 
movement. 


614 


HANDLING  THE  PATIENT  23 

If  a  patient  is  so  heavy  that  two  persons  are  re- 
quired to  move  her,  they  should  stand  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  bed  and  reaching  across  the  patient's  back  firmly 
grasp  her  under  the  armpits,  their  crossed  arms  thus 
forming  a  V-shaped  rest  for  her  head  while  they  clasp 
each  other's  hands  under  her  thighs. 

When  the  patient  is  well  enough  to  help  herself,  put- 
ting a  stout,  broad  piece  of  muslin  round  the  foot  of 
the  bed  with  the  ends  long  enough  to  be  grasped,  will 
help  her  to  assume  a  sitting  position ;  one  round  the  top 
of  the  bed  will  help  her  to  pull  herself  up  higher  in 
bed. 

If  necessary  to  change  your  charge  from  one  bed 
to  another,  place  the  beds  about  five  feet  apart,  parallel 
with  each  other,  with  the  head  of  one  on  a  line  with 
the  foot  of  the  other.  Unless  the  patient  is  very  light 
there  should  be  two  to  lift,  both  standing  on  the  same 
side  (between  the  beds).  One  puts  her  arms  under 
the  shoulders  and  buttocks,  the  other  under  the  back 
and  thighs.  If  possible  have  the  patient  hold  herself 
stiff.  Lift  her  gently  in  unison,  turn  round  and  place 
her  on  the  fresh  bed. 

If  the  patient  is  heavy  three  may  be  required  to  do 
this  well.  Under  these  circumstances  the  first  lifter 
supports  the  head  and  small  of  the  back,  the  second 
the  shoulders  and  thighs,  the  third  the  buttocks  and 
under  the  knees. 

When  the  lighting  of  the  room  or  other  considera- 
tions render  it  unadvisable  to  change  the  position  of 


Changing 
the  Patient 


615 


CHANGING  THE  MATTRESS  25 

the  head  of  the  bed,  they  are  placed  near  together  with 
the  heads  on  a  line.  The  patient  is  lifted  from  the  far 
side  of  the  first  bed,  carried  around  between  the  two, 
and  laid  ,  down  in  the  second  bed.  This  entails  a 
longer  carry,  but  if  all  work  in  unison  it  is  not  dif- 
ficult. 

TO  CHANGE  THE  MATTRESS  WITH  THE 
PATIENT  IN  BED 

To  the  uninitiated  this  seems  an  almost  impossible 
feat.  In  reality,  if  done  according  to  rule,  it  is  not 
much  harder  than  changing  the  under  sheets.  If  the 
patient  is  heavy  four  people  will  be  required  to  ac- 
complish this  deftly,  two  on  either  side  of  the  bed. 
The  sheets  are  loosened  on  all  sides;  the  top  sheets 
and  the  blankets  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  when 
the  bed  clothes  were  changed ;  the  under  sheets  are 
rolled  tightly  up  to  the  patient's  side  (the  roll  being 
undermost).  Using  these  rolls  for  support,  the  patient 
is  moved  to  one  side  of  the  mattress ;  this  side  is  then 
pulled  to  the  centre  of  the  bed,  curving  the  mattress 
upwards ;  the  fresh  mattress  is  placed  alongside,  the 
patient  lifted  by  the  bed-clothes  on  to  it,  the  dis- 
carded mattress  removed,  the  fresh  one  drawn  into 
place,  and  the  patient  lifted  to  the  centre;  the  sheets 
are  again  unrolled  and  tucked  in  place. 

THE  PREVENTION  AND  CURE  OF  BED  SORES 

A  bed  sore  is  gangrene,  or  death  of  the  tissue  of 
the  affected  parts.  The  bony  prominences  such  as  the 
lower  part  of  the  spine,  the  shoulder  blades,  elbows, 


617 


BED  SORES 


27 


and  heels  are  the  parts  most  likely  to  be  affected. 
Moisture,  wrinkles,  crumbs,  and  a  too  long  continu- 
ance in  one  position  are  the  pre-disposing  causes, 
therefore  these  conditions  must  all  be  guarded  against. 

The  presence  o£  moisture  is  generally  due  to  per- 
spiration, or  discharge  from  wound,  bowels  or  blad- 
der. When  the  two  latter  are  the  causes  pads  made 
of  oakum  or  jute  placed  in  cheese-cloth  or  old  muslin, 
put  on  the  patient  like  a  child's  diaper,  will  save  the 
bed  linen.  These  must  be  changed  as  often  as  neces- 
sary, and  the  patient  well  washed  with  warm  water 
and  soap ;  dusting  with  a  little  talcum,  starch,  or  rice 
powder  will  help  to  keep  the  skin  dry  and  soft  and  it 
will  also  prevent  chapping.  Crumbs  and  wrinkles 
must  also  be  guarded  against.  By  keeping  the  draw 
sheet  tightly  drawn  and  tucked  far  under  the  mattress 
the  latter  will  be  overcome ;  the  former  must  be  looked 
for  after  every  meal ;  brushing  them  out  with  the  hand 
is  the  most  efficient  way,  but  a  small  whisk-broom  may 
be  used. 

At  least  twice  a  day  all  parts  likely  to  be  affected, 
especially  the  back,  should  be  washed  with  warm  water 
and  soap,  rubbed  with  50  per  cent  alcohol,  and  dusted 
with  talcum.  This  not  only  helps  to  prevent  bed- 
sores but  is  unspeakably  refreshing  to  the  weary  in- 
valid. Avoid  using  too  much  powder  or  it  will  cake 
and  do  more  harm  than  good. 

A  preparation  of  equal  parts  collodion  and  castor 
oil  painted  over  the  surface  will  often  prevent  a  break- 
down of  the  tissue,  by  forming  an  artificial  skin. 


Avoid 
Moisture 


Artificial 
Skin 


619 


28 


HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 


Relieving 
Pressure 


Care  of 
a  Sore 


Frequent  change  of  position  is  another  important 
means  in  the  prevention  of  bed-sores.  Prop  the  pa- 
tient over  on  her  side  by  putting  a  couple  of  pillows 
lengthwise  behind  her,  one  under  her  shoulders,  the 
other  under  the  lower  part  of  her  t>ack.  Rings  made 
of  batting  or  sheet  wadding  wound  with  bandages  are 
excellent  mediums  for  relieving  pressure.  They  should 

be  made  with  the  hole  just 
large  enough  to  permit  of 
the  bony  prominence  fitting 
into  it.  When  the  patient 
has  to  lie  for  some  time  on 
her  back,  often  consider- 
able relief  is  given  by  flex- 
ing the  knees.  They  can  be 
supported  either  by  a  pillow 
doubled  and  tied  to  hold  it 
so  (the  pointed  side  placed 
next  the  body),  or  a  cylin- 
drical pillow  made  like  the  old-fashio-ned  bolster,  only 
smaller  and  stuffed  with  hair.  Small  pillows  or  hot 
water  bags  rilled  with  cool  water,  placed  under  the 
small  of  the  back,  will  help  to  make  a  long  continu- 
ance of  the  dorsal  position  bearable. 

All  pillows  should  be  shaken  and  turned  frequently. 
If  the  skin  should  become  broken,  the  resulting  sore 
should  be  washed  daily  with  bichloride  of  mercury 
1-2000,  and  a  dressing  applied.  Gauze  soaked  in 
balsam  of  Peru  or  an  ointment  made  of  castor  oil  and 
zinc  oxide  powder  are  generally  found  efficacious. 


Wadding  Ring, 
to  Relieve  Pressure 


620 


CONVALESCENCE 

The  most  anxious  moments  in  nursing  are  certainly 
when  the  disease  is  at  its  height,  but  by  far  the  most 
trying  are,  as  a  rule,  during  the  time  of  convalescence. 
It  is  then  that  the  greatest  exercise  of  tact,  discern- 
ment, self-control  and  patience  on  the  part  of  the  at- 
tendant are  necessary. 

Relapse,  except  in  the 
germ  diseases,  is  nearly  al- 
ways due  to  over- feeding, 
over-exertion,  or  nervous 
excitement. 

The  diet  is  a  very  impor- 
tant factor  in  the  treatment 
of  convalescents.  Carry  out 
the  doctor's  orders  minute- 
ly regarding  it.  Have,  so 
far  as  you  can,  things  that  Rubber  Alr  CusWon 

you  know  the  patient  likes.  If  she  expresses  a  prefer- 
ence for  a  certain  dish  have  it  if  allowable,  but  as  a 
rule  it  is  not  wise  to  consult  her  on  the  subject. 

Always  serve  your  patient's  meals  as  daintily  as  pos-      serving 
sible ;  have  the  tray  covered  with  a  spotless  table  nap-      of  Meals 
kin  or  tray  cover;  use  the  prettiest  china  available; 
even  one  bright  flower  with  a  little  green  is  a  great 
attraction.    But  above  all  see  that  the  food  is  properly 
cooked  and  properly  served ;  that  all  hot  things  are 
very  hot,  and  cold  ones  really  cold.  '  More  salt  and 
less   sugar  will   generally  be   wanted   than   when   in 

29 


621 


30  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

health.    Highly  seasoned  food  is  not  advisable  or  often 
desired  even  by  those  who  like  it  when  well. 

It  is  better  to  set  before  the  invalid  too  little  than 
too  much,  for  it  is  easy  to  get  more,  and  the  sight  of 
too  much  food  on  the  tray  is  apt  to  imbue  anyone 


A  Bedside  Table  Convenient  for  Serving  Meals 

whose  appetite  is  poor  with  a  dislike  for  it.  Besides, 
as  the  digestive  functions  are  weakened  during  and 
after  illness,  it  is  better  for  a  time  to  serve  food  in 
smaller  quantities  and  oftener;  for  instance,  give  an 
egg  nog,  milk  punch,  egg  lemonade,  egg  albumen,  or 
other  light,  easily  digested  drink  between  breakfast 


622 


CONVALESCENCE  31 

and  the  noonday  meal,  and  again  at  three  or  four 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  A  glass  of  hot  milk  given  at 
bed-time  will  often  induce  sleep. 

Keeping  the  patient  amused  is  another  important 
item  in  the  care  of  the  convalescent.  A  few  visitors 
(provided  they  do  not  stay  too  long,  talk  too  much, 
or  give  any  worrying  or  disagreeable  news)  will  of- 
ten help  to  brighten  up  the  patient.  Playing  cards  or 
games,  reading  aloud  to  her,  etc.,  will  help  to  pass 
away  the  time  and  tire  her  less  than  talking. 

When  people  have  been  ill  for  some  time  the  muscles 
of  the  eyes  are  apt  to  be  weak  and  will  be  easily 
strained,  so  they  ought  not  to  be  allowed  to  read  much 
themselves,  especially  while  they  are  in  the  recum- 
bent position. 

Those  who  are  strong  and  well  little  realize  the  ex- 
ertion and  excitement  caused  by  the  first  sitting  up, 
after  being  confined  to  the  bed  for  some  time. 

The  period  is  usually  limited  to  half  an  hour  the 
first  day,  gradually  increasing  the  time  as  the  patient 
can  stand  it.  Do  not  wait  for  her  to  complain  of 
fatigue;  on  showing  the  first  signs  of  it  she  should 
be  put  -to  bed.  Of  course  there  are  patients  who  think 
themselves  a  great  deal  worse  than  they  really  are, 
and  who  have  to  be  encouraged  to  sit  up'  longer  than 
they  think  they  can.  At  such  times  the  pulse  is  a 
good  guide. 

Do  not  really  dress  the  patient  until  she  is  well 
enough  to  walk  around.  Warm  stockings,  bed  slip- 


Amusing 

the  Patient 


Sitting  Up 
for  the 
First  Time 


623 


32  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

pers,  a  warm  wrapper  and  blankets  are  all  that  are 
necessary. 

Lifting  If  the  patient  has  been  seriously  ill  she  should  not 
a  ciair  be  allowed  to  stand  or  exert  herself  in  the  least  when 
sitting  up  the  first  few  times.  If  not  too  heavy  she 
can  be  lifted  by  one  person.  The  arms  of  the  patient 
are  locked  about  the  neck  of  the  attendant,  who,  plac- 
ing one  arm  under  the  thigh,  the  other  under  the  back, 
lifts  the  patient  into  the  chair,  the  back  of  which  is 
parallel  w'ith  the  foot  of  the  bed. 

When  two  people  are  required  to  do  the  lifting  they 
should  stand  at  the  same  side  of  the  bed,  placing  the 
hands,  one  under  the  shoulders  and  buttocks,  the 
other  under  the  thighs  and  ankles,  and  lifting  in  uni- 
son, turn  and  seat  the  patient  gently  in  the  chair.  The 
chair  should  be  made  comfortable  with  pillows,  and 
the  patient  kept  warm  with  blankets.  When  possible 
the  chair,  should  be  carried  carefully  into  an  adjoining, 
well-aired  room.  The  sick-room  and  bed  should  be 
well  aired  and  made  ready  immediately  for  the  patient's 
return,  as  it  may  be  necessary  for  her  to  be  put  back 
to  bed  sooner  than  expected. 

CARE  OF  THE  HAIR,  MOUTH,  TEETH 

While  caring  for  the  hair  protect  the  pillow-case 
with  a  towel.  When  the  hair  is  tangled  always  hold 
it  between  the  tangle  and  the  head  to  avoid  pulling  it. 
Rubbing  a  little  vaseline  into  the  scalp  will  help  to 
get  the  snarls  out  more  easily.  To  avoid  tangles  the 


624 


CARE  OF  THE  HAIR,  MOUTH,  TEETH 


33 


hair  should  be  brushed  twice  daily  and  braided  in  two 
plaits. 

If  the  scalp  is  kept  clean  by  rubbing  it  occasionally 
with  a  little  alcohol  and  water  (equal  parts)  the  hair 
always  well  brushed,  and  rubbed  once  in  a  while  be- 
tween a  damp  wash-rag,  it  may  not  be  necessary  to 
wash  it  for  quite  a  while. 

When  it  must  be  washed,  protect  the  pillow  and 
upper  part  of  the  bed  with  a  rubber  sheet  covered 
with  a  bath  towel.  Pull  the  pillows  down  under  the 
back  so  that  the  head  extends  somewhat  beyond  them 
and  over  a  basin  of  water.  Have  a  slop  jar  at  hand 
in  which  to  empty  the  water,  and  plenty  of  warm 
water  to  wash  the  soap  out  thoroughly.  Support  the 
head  with  one  hand  while  you  wash  it.  Dry  the  hair 
well  after  washing.  A  little  alcohol  or  hair  tonic  con- 
taining it,  well  rubbed  into  the  scalp,  will  lessen  the 
chance  of  the  patient  taking  cold. 

When  the  patient  is  unable  to  brush  her  own  teeth 
it  is  often  easier  to  do  it  for  her  with  clean  gauze 
wrapped  around  the  index  finger  or  the  end  of  a  piece 
of  whalebone,  than  with  a  tooth-brush.  In  illness 
sordes  (tartar)  is  apt  to  collect  between  the  teeth  un- 
less they  are  very  frequently  and  carefully  cleansed. 

Clean  not  only  the  teeth  but  also  the  gums,  the  roof 
of  the  mouth  and  the  tongue.  Whalebone  and  gauze 
are  far  better  for  this  purpose  than  the  brush.  When 
a  patient  is  on  milk  diet  her  tongue  and  mouth  should 
be  cleansed  after  each  feeding. 


Washing 
the  Hair 


Care 
of  the 
Teeth 


Care 
of  the 

Mouth 


625 


34  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

Some  good  mouth  washes  arc : 

(1)  Equal  parts  of  listerine,  boric  acid  4  per  cent, 
lemon  juice  and  water. 

(2)  Listerine,  one  ounce;  peroxide  of  hydrogen, 
three  drachms ;  alboline,  one  drachm. 

(3)  Tincture  of  myrrh,  half  a  drachm;  soda  bi- 
carbonate, grains  twenty ;  aboline,  one  drachm. 

(4)  Listerine  and  water,  equal  parts. 

BATHS  AND  BATHING 

Perhaps  there  is  nothing  that  will  give  greater  re- 
freshment to  the  invalid,  obliged  to  lie  in  bed  day 
'after  day,  than  a  bath.  Unless  contrary  to  the  physi- 
cian's orders,  one  should  be  given  every  day.  If  given 
in  a  warm  room,  without  exposure,  there  is  absolutely 
no  danger  of  the  patient  taking  cold.  To  make  mat- 
ters doubly  sure,  before  taking  out  of  the  bath  blank- 
ets, rub  the  patient  all  over  with  50  per  cent  alcohol. 
The  Never  give  a  bath  until  an  hour  after  a  meal.  Be- 
f°re  beginning  see  that  the  room  is  not  only  warm  but 
free  from  draughts,  also  that  you  have  everything 
needed  at  hand.  It  is  best  to  have  the  water  in  a  foot 
tub ;  it  will  keep  warm  longer  than  in  a  shallow  basin. 
Have  a  pitcher  of  hot  water  to  keep  the  bath  the  re- 
quired temperature. 

A  large  blanket,  face  and  bath  towels,  wash  cloths, 
alcohol  and  powder  are  the  other  necessary  articles. 
Slip  the  blanket  under  the  patient.  If  it  is  not  wide 
enough  to  come  well  round  her  and  also  for  the  ends 


626 


BATHS  AND  BATHING  35 

to  overlap,  use  two.  The  blanket  may  be  covered  by 
a  sheet  if  necessary  but  the  wool  next  the  body  is  de- 
sirable. 

Take  off  the  night-gown  and  fold  down  the  upper 
bed  clothes — the  face  and  neck  are  washed  first  and 
well  dried,  then  the  arms  and  hands.  Be  particular 
about  drying  between  the  fingers,  also  around  and  in- 
side the  ears.  Especially  while  washing  the  face  have 
a  firm  touch.  Expose  only  one  portion  of  the  body 
at  a  time,  and  that  not  longer  than  necessary.  Dry 
each  part  well  before  going  on  to  the  next;  in  order 
not  to  fatigue  the  patient,  work  as  quickly  as  possible. 
It  should  be  necessary  to  turn  her  only  once.  The 
towels  should  be  warmed  by  wrapping  them  around  a 
hot  water  bottle.  It  is  well  to  give  hot  broth  or  milk 
soon  after  the  bath. 

To  give  a  foot  bath,  loosen  the  bed  clothes  at  the 
bottom,  protect  the  bed  with  a  blanket,  put  the  foot  Foot  Bath 
tub,  half  full  of  water  lengthwise  on  the  bed,  flex 
the  patient's  knees,  raise  her  feet  with  one  hand  while 
you  draw  the  tub  under  them  with  the  other;  wrap 
a  blanket  round  tub  and  knees. 

When  mustard  is  desired,  make  a  paste  of  the 
mustard — about  two  tablespoonsful  to  a  large  foot 
tub.  The  feet  remain  in  about  twenty  minutes,  the 
bath  being  kept  at  the  same  temperature  by  the  addi- 
tion of  hot  water  from  time  to  time.  Be  careful  in 
adding  the  hot  water  not  to  pour  it  in  near  the  feet. 


627 


"Brand" 
Treatment 


36  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

When  the  bath  is  over  wrap  the  feet  in  the  blanket  for 
a  few  minutes,  then  dry. 

To  give  a  bath  for  the  reduction  of  temperature  a 
large  rubber  (covered  with  a  sheet)  is  necessary  to 
protect  the  bed,  as  a  considerable  amount  of  water  must 
be  used. 

There  are  several  different  kinds  of  bed  baths  given 
for  this  purpose.  Sometimes  the  patient  is  simply 
sponged  off  with  cold  water,  at  others  a  hot  sponge 
comes  first,  followed  by  the  cold  which  often  consists 
of  equal  parts  of  alcohol  and  water,  made  colder  at 
times  by  the  addition  of  ice.  The  doctor  always  orders 
the  temperature  of  the  bath,  and  also  the  duration, 
which  is  generally  from  ten  to  twenty  minutes. 

In  giving  these  baths,  use  slow,  long,  curving,  down- 
ward strokes,  and  plenty  of  water.  Where  there  is  a 
high  temperature  there  is  no  danger  of  catching  cold, 
and  as  eradiation  of  heat  is  the  effect  sought,  the  pa- 
tient should  be  exposed  as  much  as  possible.  It  is 
often  desirable,  when  the  sponging  is  over,  to  rub  the 
patient  with  alcohol,  and  fan  till  dry. 

When  possible,  the  "Brand"  treatment  is  used  for 
the  reduction  of  temperature  (especially  in  typhoid). 
For  this,  a  portable  tub,  which  can  be  wheeled  to  the 
bedside,  is  required.  It  would  not  be  safe  to  give  such 
a  bath  without  the  assistance  of  a  doctor  or  trained 
nurse ;  it  is,  therefore,  not  worth  while  going  into  de- 
tails, and,  except  in  cases  of  long  continued  fever, 
the  be4  bath  is  generally  all  that  is  necessary. 


628 


6 ATMS  AND  BATHING  37 

When  given  a  hot  bath  in  a  tub,  fill  the  tub  three- 
fourths  full  of  water;  the  exact  temperature  will  be 
ordered  by  the  doctor,  usually  it  is  from  106  degrees 
F  to  no  degrees  F.  The  doctor  also  states  how  long 
he  wishes  the  patient  to  remain  in  the  bath.  When 
giving  a  hot  bath  of  any  kind,  for  any  purpose,  al- 
ways apply  cold  cloths  or  an  ice  cap  to  the  head.  A 
hot  drink  given  either  while  the  patient  is  in  the  tub 


Hot  Baths 
to  Induce 
Perspiration, 
or  Quiet 
the  Nerves 


BATH  THERMOMETER 

or  after  the  return  to  bed  will  further  induce  perspira- 
tion. Mustard  is  sometimes  added  to  these  baths,  just 
as  it  is  to  the  foot  bath. 

While  in  the  tub  the  patient's  pulse  must  be  noted 
carefully,  as  such  baths  are  sometimes  very  depressing 
to  the  heart.  After  the  bath  the  patient  must  go  to 
bed  immediately,  and  remain  there  well  covered,  and 
care  must  be  taken  to  have  warm  clothing  going  from 
the  bath  to  the  bed.  These  baths  are  also  given  to 
children  in  convulsions. 

The  hot-pack,  or  sweat,  is  generally  considered  a  bet- 
ter medium  for  inducing  perspiration.  To  give  this 
protect  the  bed  with  a  rubber  sheet  or  oil  cloth,  wring 
out  two  old  blankets  in  water  130  degrees  F,  put  one 
under  the  patient  and  around  one  arm  and  leg,  the 


Precautions 


The  Hot-pack 
or  Sweat 


629 


38  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

other  over  the  patient,  and  around  the  other  arm  and 


GIVING  A  HOT-PACK 


leg;  put  an  ice  cap  or  cold  compress  on  the  head,  a 
hot   water  bag  at  the   feet,   another  over  the  heart, 


HOT-PACK  COMPLETED 


others  along  the  side,  over  all  wrap  a  couple  of  dry 
blankets  ;  give  a  hot  drink.     The  patient  generally  re- 


630 


BATHS  AND  BATHING 


39 


mains  in  the  pack  from  twenty  minutes  to  half  an  hour. 
The  pulse  should  be  taken  every  -five  minutes,  and  as 


HOT  WATER  BOTTLES 

the  hands  are  under  the  blankets  it  must  be  taken  at 
the  temporal  artery. 


HOT  WATER  BOTTLE  FOR  THE  SPINE 

After  being  taken  out  of  the  pack  the  patient  should 
be  rolled  in  a  dry  blanket  and  remain  so  for  an  hour. 


631 


40  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

Except  where  a  light  weight  is  desirable,  as  over 
the  heart  and  abdomen,  a  good  substitute  for  the  rub- 
ber hot  water  bag  is  a  stone  bottle ;  even  a  glass  one  can 
be  used,  and  if  a  wire  a  couple  of  inches  longer  than 

the  bottle  is  put  into  it 
to  act  as  a  heat  con- 
ductor, it  can  be  filled 
with  quite  hot  water 
without  breaking.  When 
using  hot  water  bags  or 
bottles  of  any  kind,  pre- 
cautions must  be  taken 

Water  Bottle  for  the  Throat          to     avoid     burning      the 

patient,  which  is  very  easily  done,  especially  with  old 
people,  or  where  from  any  cause,  the  circulation  of  the 
blood  is  sluggish  or  the  tissues  in  poor  condition; 
therefore,  see  that  the  bottles  are  tightly  corked,  that 
they  are  well  and  securely  covered  (flannel  bags  slight- 
ly larger  than  the  bottles  make  the  best  covering)  ; 
never  put  them  too  near  the  patient,  and  remember  that 
when  the  patient  is  restless  the  bags  are  apt  to  slip 
nearer  than  you  intended  them  to  be. 

Salt  baths  are  given  for  their  tonic  effects.  A  bath 
sufficiently  strong  to  redden  the  skin  and  have  an  ex- 
hilarating effect  will  require  ten  pounds  of  ordinary 
sea  salt  to  a  bath  tub  about  half  full  of  water. 

The  average  standard  temperature  for  baths  is  as 
follows : 


632 


SICK  ROOM  METHODS  41 

Cold 33°-65°  Fahr.  Tepid.85°-  92°  Fahr. 

Cool 67°-75°  Fahr.  Warm92°-  98°  Fahr. 

Temperate. 75°-85°  Fahr.  Hot.  .98°-ii2°  Fahr. 

The  regular  bath  thermometer  is  encased  in  wood 
to  protect  it  from  hard  usage,  but  the  ordinary  atmo- 
spheric thermometer  will  answer  the  purpose  just  as 
well.  Mix  the  water  well  before  taking  the  temper- 
ature. 

SICK  BOOM  METHODS 

Taking  and  Recording  Temperature,  Pulse  and  Respiration 
Observation  and  Recording  of  Symptoms 

The  heat  of  the  blood  is  ascertained  by  means  of  the      clinical 
clinical   thermometer.      These   thermometers   are   self      Thermometer 
registering  and  vary  in  delicacy,  the  finest  ones  regis- 
tering in  one  minute,  others  in  from  three  to  five  min- 
utes.    The  more   expensive  ones   magnify  the   scale, 
and  are  therefore  easier  for  the  novice  to  read.  Hick's 
thermometer  is  probably  the  best. 

The  temperature  is  taken  either  in  the  mouth,  rec- 
tum or  armpit.  Before  using  the  thermometer  the 
mercury  must  be  shaken  down  to  95°.  Be  careful  not 
to  shake  it  into  the  bulb,  or  the  thermometer  will  be 
rendered  useless  and  also  be  careful  not  to  hit  it 
against  anything,  as  it  will  break  very  easily.  While 
in  constant  use  it  is  best  kept  in  a  glass  containing  a 
little  boric  acid  or  listerine,  with  some  soft  cotton  in 
the  bottom  of  the  glass. 


633 


HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 


Temperature 
by  Mouth 


When  taking  the  temperature  by  mouth  be  sure 
that  the  patient  has  not  had  anything  to  eat  or  drink 
recently.  Place  the  end  of  the  instrument 
containing  the  mercury  under  the  tongue, 
on  either  side.  See  that  the  lips  are  tightly 
closed  all  the  time  the  thermometer  is  in  the 
mouth,  and  do  not  leave  it  in  place  longer 
than  necessary. 

Never  take  the  temperature  of  a  de- 
lirious patient  nor  a  child  by  the  mouth ; 
they  are  likely  to  bite  off  the  bulb  and 
swallow  the  mercury.  If  this  accident 
should  occur  give  white  of  egg  immediately 
and  notify  the  physician.  In  such  cases  it 
is  always  safer  to  take  the  temperature  by 
rectum  and  it  is  also  expedient  to  take  a 
rectal  temperature  when  the  patient  is  very 
ill,  for  this  is  the  most  accurate  method. 

Before  inserting  the  thermometer,  the 
bulb  should  be  oiled  and  precautions  taken 
to  have  the  rectum  free  from  faeces.  Five 
minutes  should  be  allowed  for  registration. 
The  temperature  will  be  one  degree  higher 
than  when  taken  by  mouth. 

The  axillary  temperature  will  be  from 
three-tenths  to  half  a  degree  lower  than  the  mouth. 
The  armpit  must  be  wiped  thoroughly  before  taking ; 
the  thermometer  is  then  placed  in  the  hollow,  and  kept 
in  place  by  holding  the  arm  close  to  the  side  and  flex- 


Clinical 
Thermometer 


634 


SICK  ROOM  METHODS 


43 


ing  the  elbow  so  that  the  hand  rests  on  the  opposite 
shoulder.  It  will  take  ten  minutes  for  the  thermometer 
to  register. 

The  normal  temperature  of  the  human  body  is  from 
98°  F.  to  99°  F.  The  temperature  is  apt  to  be  high- 
est between  4  p.  m.  and  8  p.  m.  and  it  reaches  the 
lowest  ebb  about  3  a.  m.  This  fact  makes  it  essential 
that  special  care  be  taken  of  the  sick  in  the  early  hours 
of  the  morning,  the  lowering  temperature  indicating 
a  lower  vitality. 

Though  a  rise  of  temperature  is  always  to  be  re- 
garded with  suspicion  it  must  be  remembered  that 
many  causes  (especially  with  children)  may  create  a 
slight  deviation  from  the  normal,  without  anything 
serious  being  the  matter.  Constipation  will  often  cause 
a  rise  of  temperature,  sometimes  even  a  slight  cold, 
attack  of  indigestion,  or  undue  excitement  will  do  the 
same,  while  profuse  perspiration  or  diarrhoea  is  apt 
to  cause  a  sub-normal  temperature. 

A  sub-normal  temperature  is  far  more  dangerous 
than  the  same  number  of  degrees  above  normal.  If  a 
patient's  temperature  drops  to  97.5°  or  97°  she  should 
be  rolled  in  blankets,  a  hot  water  bag  put  at  the  feet, 
another  over  the  heart,  and  a  cup  of  hot  coffee  or  milk 
given.  If  the  temperature  does  not  soon  respond  to 
this  treatment  the  doctor  should  be  notified. 

The  following  table  gives  the  different  variations 
pf  temperature ; 


Normal 
Temperature 


High 
Temperature 


Sub-Normal 
Temperature 


635 


44 


HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 


The  Pulse 


98 
97 


Hyperpyrexia .  .  .  .105°  and  over,  extremely  dangerous 

High   Fever    103°         105° 

Moderate    Fever    101°         103° 

Sub- febrile    99^°     101° 

Normal    98° 

Subnormal    97° 

Collapse 95° 

Algid  Collapse Below  95°,  extremely  dangerous 

A  record  of  the  temperature  is  of  great  value,  not 
only  in  diagnosis,  but  also  in  watching  the  course  of 
the  disease ;  it  should  therefore  be  charted  every  time 
it  is  taken.  This  can  be  done  in  figures,  but  the  reg- 
ular clinical  temperature  chart  conveys  a  clearer  idea 
of  how  the  temperature  is  running.  The  temperature 
should  be  taken  at  the  same  time  each  day ;  when  it 
does  not  deviate  much  from  the  normal  twice  a  day, 
morning  and  evening,  is  sufficient ;  otherwise  it  should 
be  taken  every  three  or  four  hours,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  case. 

A  thorough  knowledge  of  the  pulse  can  only  be 
gained  by  constant  study  and  practice.  It  takes  many 
months  of  careful  observation  of  the  numerous  cases 
in  the  hospital  ward,  before  the  medical  student  or 
nurse  can  readily  discern  between  the  various  charac- 
teristics of  the  different  pulses.  It  is,  therefore,  im- 
possible to  go  very  deeply  into  the  subject  here. 

The  three  principal  things  to  be  learned  are:  (i) 
How  to  count  it;  (2)' to  discern  if  it  is  regular  or  ir- 
regular; (3)  if  strong  or  weak. 


636 


SICK  ROOM  METHODS 


45 


To  count  the  pulse  place  the  index  and  middle  fin- 
gers on^he  wrist,  on  the  thumb  side,  where  the  radial 
artery  can  easily  be  felt.  Count  it  for  a  full  minute,  di- 
viding the  minute  into  quarters,  as  you  can  then  tell 
if  the  frequency  of  the  pulse  is  regular  or  irregular. 
For  instance,  if  you  count  fifteen  beats  in  one  quarter 
and  twenty  in  another,  you  will  know  that  the  fre- 
quency of  the  pulse  is  irregular. 

If  some  beats  are  strong  and  others  weak  the  qual- 
ity of  the  pulse  is  irregular.  By  careful  considera- 
tion of  the  pulse  every  time  you  take  it,  it  soon  becomes 
possible  to  realize  where  there  is  a  difference  in  the 
quality  of  the  pulse ;  that  is,  when  it  is  stronger  or 
weaker. 

The  pulse  can  be  taken  at  the  temporal  artery  when 
for  any  reason  it  is  impossible  to  take  it  at  the  wrist, 
it  also  can  be  felt  in  the  groin. 

The  average  normal  pulse  is : 

In  men  from 60  to     70  beats  per  minute 

In  women  from 65  to     80  beats  per  minute 

In  children  from 90  to  100  beats  per  minute 

Just  as  the  temperature,  even  in  health,  is  affected 
by  certain  conditions,  so  is  the  pulse ;  food,  exercise, 
excitement,  will  all  cause  an  increase  in  the  pulse  rate. 

The  pulse  .should  always  be  taken  and  recorded  at 
the  same  time  as  the  temperature.  The  pulse  is  gen- 
erally written  in  figures.  When  there  is  any  differ- 
ence in  the  quality,  or  if  it  is  irregular  this  also  should 
be  recorded. 


To  Count 
the  Pulse 


Pulse  by 
Temporal 
Artery 


637 


46 


HOME  CARE  OF  .THE  SICK 


A  record  of  the  respiration  is  also  often  required. 
The  respiration  being  more  or  less  under  the  control 
of  the  patient  it  is  never  wise  to  let  her  know  that  you 
are  taking  it;  therefore,  keep  hold  of  her  wrist,  as 
though  you  were  still  counting  her  pulse,  and  watch 
the  rise  and  fall  of  the  chest.  If  you  find  it  hard  to 


Keeping 
Records 


*******  l 


TEMPERATURE,  PULSE,  AND  RESPIRATION  CHART 

count  by  simply  looking,  hold  the  patient's  hand  on 
her  chest,  then  you  can  feel  the  motion  as  well.  This 
is  generally  the  easier  method  for  the  beginner.  Count 
it  as  you  do  the  pulse,  for  a  full  minute  in  quarters. 
The  inspiration  and  expiration  count  as  one  breath. 

Besides  the  temperature,  pulse  and  respiration,  a 
record  must  be  kept  of  all  medication  given,  and  also 
of  all  changes  in  the  patient's  condition.  If  the  pa- 
tient has  pain  note  it,  stating  where  the  pain  is  and 


638 


SICK  ROOM  METHODS  47 

if  it  be  continuous  or  only  in  paroxysms.  When  medi- 
cine is  given  to  relieve  the  pain  state  with  what  re- 
sult. When  the  patient  is  on  liquid  diet,  the  amount 
of  fluids  taken  during  the  twenty-four  hours  should 
be  charted  every  morning. 

Mark  every  movement  of  the  bowels;  observe  the 


Wtow  CJU..S 


»v  «* 


BEDSIDE  NOTES  AS  MADE  IN  A  HOSPITAL, 

movements  carefully  to  see  if  there  is  anything  abnor- 
mal in  their  appearance.  If  so,  not  only  describe  it  in 
your  record,  but  save  the  movement  for  the  doctor's 
inspection.  The  same  thing  should  be  done  if  the 
patient  vomits. 

When  there  is  not  sufficient  urine  voided,  report  it ; 
also  if  there  is  anything  untoward  in  its  appearance. 


639 


48  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

Forty  ounces  is  the  amount  that  should  normally  be 
voided  in  twenty-four  hours.  In  fevers  there  is  apt 
to  be  less,  and  what  is  passed  will  be  highly  colored. 
In  nervous  diseases,  on  the  contrary,  there  is  likely 
im  ortant  to  ^e  a  ^ar§"er  amount  of  a  pale  color.  Perspiration,  a 
items  chill  or  chilly  feeling,  coughing,  expectoration,  restless- 
ness, the  amount  of  discharge  from  wounds,  are  all 
items  of  import  of  which  the  doctor  must  know  the 
details  to  treat  the  patient  understandingly.  He  never 
will  fully  know  them  unless  they  are  clearly  and  con- 
cisely written  down  at  the  time  they  happen. 

The  accompanying  temperature  chart  and  record  is 
an  example  of  hospital  practice. 

THE  GIVING  OF  MEDICINE 

A  few  rules  to  be  remembered  in  giving  medicines 
are: 

Rules          :*     Always   give   exactly   what  the   doctor   orders, 
neither  more  nor  less. 

2.  Always  give  medicine  on  time — if  a  dose  is  due 
at  twelve,  give  it  at  twelve  and  not  at  half  past. 

3.  Medicines   intended   to  be  taken   before   meals 
should   be   given    twenty    minutes    before    meal-time, 
those  to  be  taken  after  eating,  twenty  minutes  after 
the  meal  is  finished. 

4.  Never  give  medicine  without  reading  the  label 
on  the  bottle  twice;  before  and  again  after  pouring 
it  out. 


640 


GIVING  OF  MEDICINE 


49 


5.  When  pouring  medicine  always  hold  the  label 
on  the  upper  side,  to  avoid  defacing  it. 

6.  Do  not  use  spoons  for  measuring  for  they  are 
never  accurate;   small   graduated  glasses,   which   are 
infinitely  better,  can  be  bought  at  any  drug  store  for 
about  ten  cents. 

7.  When  pouring  hold  the  mark  of  the  quantity  you 
require  on  a  level  with  your  eye. 

8.  Always  shake  the  bottle  before  pouring  out  the 
medicine. 

9.  The  bottle  should  always  be  recorked  immedi- 
ately after  use,  for  many  medicines  contain  volatile 
substances  and  are  apt  to  become  either  stronger  or 
weaker  than  intended,  if  left  uncorked. 

10.  Medicines    containing    iron    shoulo    be    taken 
through  a  glass  tube  or  straw,  as  they  discolor  the 
teeth. 

11.  Some  medicines,  notably  several  that  are  given 
for  coughs,  should  be  given  undiluted,  while  others 
on   account   of   their   irritating   properties   should   be 
very  well  diluted.     Never  dilute  more  than  necessary, 
for  the  addition  of  a  large  quantity  of  water  often 
renders  a  disagreeable  dose  still  more  unpleasant  to 
take. 

12.  Holding  a  piece  of  ice  in  the  mouth  for  a  short 
time  before  taking  medicine  will  often  render  a  dis- 
agreeable flavor  less  noticeable ;  a  drink  of  seltzer  aft- 
erward will  help  to  "take  away  the  taste."    Castor  oil 
given  with  lemon  juice,  a  piece  of  ice  small  enough  to 


Measuring 


To  take 
away 
the  Taste 


641 


Powders 
and  Pills 


Injections 


So  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

swallow,  seltzer  added  just  before  taking,  and  a  drink 
of  seltzer  after,  is  not  at  all  unpalatable.  Holding 
the  nose  while  taking  medicine  will  also  diminish  the 
taste. 

13.  Insoluble  powders  such  as  calomel,  bismuth  and 
acetanilid  should  be  placed   far  back  on  the  tongue 
and  washed  down  with  a  swallow  of  water.     Those 
with  a  disagreeable  taste  can  be  given  in  jam  or  bread 
or  encased  in  wafers  or  capsules  which  can  be  bought 
for  the  purpose. 

14.  Pills  also  can  be  made  easier  to  swallow  by 
giving  in  bread  or  jelly.    Unless  pills  are  freshly  made, 
they  should  be  pulverized,  as  they  soon  become  so  dry 
and  hard  that  they  will   not   readily   dissolve   in  the 
stomach. 

15.  Never  buy  a  large  quantity  of  medicine  at  a 
time,  there  are  very  few  kinds  that  will  not  deteriorate 
by  keeping;  and  because  a  medicine  is  beneficial  in 
one  case,  do  not  imagine  that  you  can  give  it  to  every- 
one  whom  you  may  think  has  the  same  ailment. 

1 6.  Medicines  should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dry  place 
and  properly  labeled.    All  poisons  should  be  marked  as 
such  and  kept  under  lock  and  key. 

Medicine  is  occasionally  given  by  rectum,  either 
when  a  local  effect  is  desired  or  when  the  stomach  is 
unable  to  retain  it. 

When  medicine  is  given  by  rectum  it  is  generally  or- 
dered well  diluted.  The  water,  added  for  this  purpose, 
should  be  warm  enough  to  make  the  injection  about 


642 


GIVING  OF  MEDICINE  51 

1 00°  F.  A  rubber  rectal  tube,  or  a  large  size  rubber 
catheter,  connected  by  a  glass  connecting  tube  with  a 
piece  of  rubber  tubing  about  eighteen  inches  long, 
into  the  further  end  of  which  has  been  fitted  a  small 
glass  funnel,  are  the  best  in  giving  medicinal  enemata. 

Let     warm     water     run 
through  the  tube  to  be  sure 
that  it  is  in  working  order  ; 
this   will  also   heat   it  and 
thus  avoid  cooling  the  med- 
Porceiain  Feeding  cup          Ration.     Grease    the    tube 
well,  with  oil  or  vaseline,  and  before  inserting  it  fill 
the  funnel  with  the  solution,  allow  half  of  it  to  run 


GLASS  DRINKING  CUP 


through,  back  into  the  pitcher,  pinch  the  rubber  to  pre- 
vent the  rest  running  through.  This  is  done  to  avoid 
getting  air  into  the  intestine. 

For   sedative  enemata    (these  generally   consist   of 
bromide  or  chloral)  the  tube  is  only  inserted  about  six 


643 


Nutritive 

Enemata 


Suppositories 


52  HOME  CAKE  OF  THE  SICK 

inches,  but  for  stimulating  enemata  (brandy  or  whisky 
and  salt  solution)  and  nutritive  enemata,  the  tube  is  in- 
serted about  fourteen  inches,  and  a  small  pillow  placed 
beneath  the  hips  to  help  the  upward  flow.  When  giv- 
ing these  enemas  have  the  patient  lie  on  her  back. 
Holding  a  folded  towel  to  the  anus,  after  the  removal 
of  the  tube,  will  help  the  patient  to  retain  the  in- 
jection. 

Nutritive  enemata  generally  consist  of  peptonized 
milk,  white  of  egg,  salt  and  one  of  the  beef  prepara- 
tions made  especially  for  that  purpose;  but  every 
doctor  has  his  own  formula  and  will  specify  how  he 
wishes  it  prepared.  When  patients  are  having  nutri- 
tive enemata  constantly  they  must  have  a  cleansing 
enema  daily,  and  this  must  be  given  at  least  an  hour 
before  the  next  nutritive  one  is  due,  and  not  till  two 
or  three  hours  after  the  last  one  has  been  given. 

Starch  and  other  emollient  enemata  are  sometimes 
given  in  diarrhoeas  and  dysentery.  To  prepare  the 
starch  mix  a  teaspoonful  of  laundry  starch  in  cold 
water,  add  a  teacupful  of  hot  water,  let  it  come  to  the 
boil.  A  few  drops  of  laudanum  are  sometimes  added 
to  this;  when  it  is  ordered,  be  very  accurate  in  count- 
ing the  drops. 

The  suppository  is  another  method  of  giving  rectal 
medication.  This  is  a  conical  shaped  preparation  of 
cocoa  butter  in  which  the  required  drug  is  incorpo- 
rated. It  is  oiled  and  gently  inserted,  pointed  end  fore- 
most, the  patient  lying  on  the  left  side. 


644 


GIVING  OF  MEDICINE 


53 


Medication  for  the  throat  is  often  given  by  means 
of  the  atomizer.  When  using  this  see  that  the  pa- 
tient's tongue  is  held  down  sufficiently  to  allow  the 
spray  to  reach  the  affected  parts,  and  be  careful  not 
to  let  the  end  of  the  atomizer  touch  the  back  of  the 
patient's  throat,  as  this  tends  to  induce  vomiting. 

The  -inhalation  of  vapor  is  another  method  of  con- 
veying medication  to  the  throat  and  also  to  the  bron- 
chial tubes  and  lungs.  Mix  the  medicine  with  boiling 


HYPODERMIC  SYRINGE 

water  and  put  in  a  small  kettle  over  an  alcohol  lamp. 
With  stiff  brown  paper,  make  a  cone,  one  end  to  fit 
over  the  mouth  and  nose,  the  other  over  the  spout  of 
the  kettle. 

When  rapid  absorption  is  necessary  medicine  is 
sometimes  given  hypodermically.  The  hypodermic  is 
a  graduated  syringe  to  which  a  hollow  needle  is  at- 
tached. As  hypodermic  injections  are  attended  with 
great  danger  unless  properly  given,  no  one  should  at- 
tempt to  administer  medicine  this  way  without  being 
personally  instructed  by  a  physician  or  nurse.  In 
giving  medication  hypodermically,  the  greatest  clean- 
liness should  be  observed;  the  flesh,  where  the  injec- 


Inhalations 


Hypodermic 
Injections 


045 


54  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

tion  is  to  be  made,  must  be  well  washed  with  alcohol, 
the  needles  should  be  attached  to  the  syringe  and  alco- 
hol drawn  into  the  syringe  and  expelled  several  times 
before  the  medicine  is  drawn  in.  When  the  syringe  is 
filled  with  the  required  amount,  expel  the  air  by  point- 
ing the  needle  upward  and  gently  pressing  the  piston 
till  a  drop  appears  at  the  point  of  the  needle.  Be  care- 
ful not  to  let  the  needle  touch  anything  after  it  has 
been  cleaned — if  it  should,  hold  it  in  the  alcohol  again 
for  a  minute  before  inserting.  The  injection  may  be 
given  in  the  outer  side  of  the  arms,  thighs  or  abdomen. 
Hold  the  flesh  between  the  thumb  and  first  finger  of 
the  left  hand,  plunge  the  needle  in  with  one  quick 
downward  movement,  inject  the  fluid  slowly  by  gently 
pressing  the  piston.  Draw  the  needle  out  quickly.  Rub 
the  spot  where  the  injection  was  made  for  a  few  sec- 
onds to  hasten  absorption. 

Clean  the  instrument  with  alcohol  before  putting 
it  away. 

PURGATIVE,   ENEMATA,   DOUCHES   AND    CATHETER- 
IZATION 

Cleansing          The  purgative,  or  as  it  is  also  called,  cleansing  en- 
ma      ema,  is  given  as  its  name  indicates  for  the  purpose  of 
washing  out  the  intestines.    It  is  generally  resorted  to 
when  cathartic  medicine  fails  to  act,  when  immediate 
catharsis  is  necessary,  or  when  for  any  reason  the  pa- 
tient is  unable  to  take  a  cathartic  by  mouth. 
The  long  rubber  rectal  tube  is  the  best  appliance  for 


646 


ENEMAS 


55 


the  giving  of  such  enemata ;  the  water  is  injected 
higher  into  the  bowel  and  there  is  a  steadier  flow  than 
when  any  of  the  bulb  syringes  are  used.  This  can  be 
attached  by  means  of  a  connecting  tube  to  the  tube  of 
the  ordinary  fountain  syringe  bag.  See  that  the  stop 
cock  is  on  the  tube. 

The  cleansing  enema  generally  consists  of  a  soap 


GLASS  DOUCHE  NOZZLES 

suds  made  with  "ivory"  or  castile  soap ;  the  froth  of? 
which  should  be  removed  as  it  contains  too  much  air ; 
the  temperature  should  be  about  98° F.  Make  the  soap 
suds  in  a  pitcher,  pour  it  into  the  bag,  let  some  run 
through  the  tube  to  warm  it  and  expel  the  air,  shut 
the  stop  cock,  grease  the  rectal  tube.  Hang  or  hold 
the  bag  not  more  than  three  feet  higher  than  the 
patient. 

The  bed  should  always  be  protected  with  a  rubber 
sheet  and  large  towel,  the  patient  lies  on  her  left  side\ 
with  the  knees  well  flexed.  The  tube  should  be  in- 


Soap  Enema 


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56  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

serted  very  gently,  never  use  force,  let  the  water  run 
in  slowly.  If  much  pain  is  given  shut  the  water  off 
occasionally,  for  a  minute  or  two.  When  a  sufficient 
quantity  has  been  given  (two  to  three  pints  for  an 
adult,  one  for  a  child)  remove  the  tube  quickly,  but 
^gently,  and  press  a  folded  towel  to  the  anus.  The 
fluid  to  do  much  good  should  be  retained  from  fifteen 
to  twenty  minutes. 

After  use  the  tube  must  be  carefully  cleansed,  wash 
it  in  warm  soap  suds  and  water,  afterward  let  a  quan- 
tity of  hot  water  run  through  it,  hang  it  up  lengthwise 
to  drip  till  perfectly  dry. 

When  used  for  more  than  one  person  the  tube 
should  always  be  boiled  for  five  minutes  after  use. 
vaginal  Douches  are  given,  as  a  rule,  either  for  cleanliness 
Douches  or  to  reiieve  inflammation.  When  used  for  the  former 
purpose  the  solution  should  be  of  a  temperature  rang- 
ing from  100°  F.  to  110°  F.  When  given  to  relieve  in- 
flammation it  is  generally  required  very  hot  even  118° 
or  120°  F.,  and  great  care  must  then  be  taken  not  to 
burn  the  patient  by  having  it  any  hotter;  mix  the 
water  well  before  you  test  it.  Some  disinfectant  is 
often  added,  carbolic  or  bichloride  being  the  ones  most 
frequently  used;  they  should,  however,  never  be  used 
without  a  doctor's  order.  In  giving,  the  patient  lies 
on  her  back,  have  the  douche  pan  placed  under  her 
properly  so  that  the  return  flow  of  the  water  will  run 
into  it.  Put  a  pillow  under  the  small  of  the  back. 
Before  inserting  the  nozzle  let  the  water  flow  through 


648 


DOUCHES  57 

the  tube,  to  expel  the  air.     Insert  gently  and  move 
it  around  while  in. 

The  douche  nozzle  should  always  be  boiled  or 
washed  in  boric  acid,  or  other  disinfectant,  after  use. 
Glass  douche  nozzles  are  preferable  to  any  other.  They 
can  be  attached  to  the  ordinary  fountain  syringe. 

Catheterization    improperly    performed    is    fraught      catheterizatioi 
with  so  much  danger  to  the  patient  that  it  must  not  be 


GLASS  CATHETER 

attempted  till  further  instruction  than  can  be  given  in 
writing  is  obtained. 

Catheterization  is  necessary  when  the  patient  is  un- 
able to  void  urine  naturally,  but  there  are  many  simple 
devices  which  should  all  be  tried  before  this  is  resorted 
to ;  for  instance,  put  hot  water  in  the  bed  pan,  allow %: 
water  to  run  from  a  faucet  within  hearing  (if  this  is 
impossible  pour  water  from  one  vessel  to  another), 
squeeze  a  sponge  dipped  in  warm  water  over  the  lower 
part  of  the  abdomen,  or  hot  stupes  can  be  applied,  and, 
this  failing,  the  stupes  can  be  alternated  with  ice. 


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58  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

In  preparing  to  catheterize  it  is  necessary  to  exer- 
cise not  only  the  greatest  cleanliness  but  asepsis.  The 
catheter  (glass  ones  are  preferable  for  women)  should 
be  boiled  for  five  minutes.  Have  at  hand  some  small 
sterile  swabs  (see  chapter  on  asepsis)  in  a  solution  of 
boric  acid.  Put  the  patient  on  the  bed  pan  (leaving  it 
further  in  front  than  for  ordinary  use),  have  the  pa- 
tient's knees  flexed  and  separated,  drape  a  sheet 
around  her  legs,  leaving  the  vulva  exposed.  Then 
wash  the  hands  well  with  soap  and  hot  water,  soaking 
Care  to  them  afterwards  in  a  solution  of  bichloride  of  mer- 
be  Taken  cur^  !_IOoo.  With  the  left  hand  separate  the  labia, 
and  carefully  wash  all  around  the  meatus  (the  open- 
•  ing  to  the  urethra,  the  tube  leading  to  the  bladder)  ; 
into  this  opening  the  catheter  is  then  carefully  intro- 
duced, it  must  not  be  forced  forward  if  any  obstruc- 
tion is  met  with,  but  withdrawn  slightly  and  the  course 
changed. 

When  the  bladder  is  very  much  distended  it  should 
not  be  emptied  entirely  at  one  time ;  when  a  pint  or 
a  pint  and  a  half  has  been  withdrawn  remove  the 
catheter  and  insert  it  again  four  or  five  hours  later. 

Before  removing  the  catheter,  the  index  finger  is 
placed  over  the  end ;  this  prevents  drops  of  urine 
falling  upon  the  bed. 


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HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 
POULTICES  AND  FOMENTATIONS 


59 


Poultices  and  fomentations  are  applied  for  the  relief 
of  localized  pain,  when  caused  by  inflammation.    The") 
heat,  by  dilating  the  superficial  blood  vessels,  draws* 
the  blood  from  the  congested  area. 

The  linseed  poultice  is  the  one  most  generally  used. 
To  make  it,  stir  the  meal  slowly  and  evenly  into  water 
while  it  is  boiling.  When  it  is  thick  enough  not  to 
run,  boil  it  a  minute  more ;  remove  from  the  fire  and 
beat  it  briskly.  When  properly  made  it  is  perfectly 
smooth,  and  just  stiff  enough  to  drop  away  from  the 
spoon.  Spread  it  on  a  piece  of  muslin  the  required 
size  and  shape,  leaving  an  inch  margin  all  round  to 
turn  over.  The  side  which  is  to  go  next  to  the  patient 
is  best  covered  with  cheesecloth  or  gauze.  This  is  cut 
slightly  larger  than  the  muslin,  so  as  to  turn  back 
over  it  to  keep  the  contents  of  the  poultice  in  place. 

Few  poultices  should  be  more  than  half  an  inch  ; 
thick.  They  should  always  be  applied  as  hot  as  the 
patient  can  possibly  stand  them.  To  keep  the  poultice 
warm  while  taking  it  to  the  bedside  it  can  be  placed 
between  two  hot  plates  or  rolled  in  a  piece  of  hot 
flannel.  The  flannel  can  be  left  over  it  when  applied 
if  there  is  no  oil  muslin  or  oil  paper  to  be  obtained; 
these  latter  are  preferable,  however,  as  they  are  very 
light  and  keep  in  the  heat  and  moisture  better. 

The  poultice  is  kept  in  place  by  a  bandage.  A  muslin 
binder  is  the  best  means  for  keeping  a  chest  poultice 
in  place.  Poultices  should  always  be  shaped  to  fit  the 


Linseed 
Poultice 


Applying 


651 


Starch 
Poultice 


Sinapisms 


6o  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

affected  part.  They  should  be  changed  at  least  every 
two  hours. 

Starch  poultices  are  used  in  certain  skin  diseases. 
The  starch  is  mixed  with  a  little  cold  water,  then 
enough  boiling  water  added  to  make  a  thick  paste. 
It  is  boiled,  spread  and  applied  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  flaxseed. 

The  cotton  jacket  or  ''dry  poultice"  is  made  by 
tacking  a  layer  of  non-absorbent  cotton  or  wadding 
between  two  pieces  of  cheesecloth,  shaped  for  the 
chest,  and  is  excellent  to  keep  on  for  a  few  days  after 
other  poultices  have  been  discontinued. 

Sinapisms  relieve  pain  through  the  agency  of  the 
mustard  which,  by  irritating"  the  sensory  nerves,  causes 
the  dilatation  of  the  superficial  blood  vessels — under 
the  point  of  application — and  the  consequent  lessening 
of  the  congestion  in  the  inflamed  tissue.  Sinapisms 
are  made  of  flour,  mustard,  and  tepid  water,  in  vary- 
ing proportions.  Those  for  a  man  are  generally  made 
one  part  mustard  to  four  of  flour;  for  a  woman  one 
part  mustard  to  six  of  flour;  for  a  child  one  part 
mustard  to  ten  of  flour.  The  water  used  should  always 
be  tepid;  cold  water  feels  uncomfortable  to  the  pa- 
tient, while  hot  destroys  the  virtue  of  the  mustard. 
The  flour  and  mustard  are  first  mixed  well  together, 
care  being  taken  to  crush  all  lumps  of  mustard ;  enough 
water  is  then  slowly  added  to  make  a  thick  paste, 
which  is  spread  on  muslin  and  covered  with  gauze. 
The  sinapism  is  generally  left  on  from  fifteen  to 


652 


FOMENTATIONS 


61 


twenty  minutes,  but  it  must  be  watched  carefully,  and 
removed  as  soon  as  the  surface  of  the  skin  is  well 
reddened,  as  otherwise  it  will  blister.  After  the  re-( 
moval  of  the  sinapism  the  skin  must  be  washed,  and\ 
if  a  little  vaseline  be  rubbed  on,  this  will  allay  the 
irritation. 

The  usual  method  of  applying  fomentations  is  to      Fomentations 
have  two  pieces  of  flannel  in  use,  applying  them  alter- 
nately and  changing  every  three  minutes  for  twenty 
minutes.    The  easiest  way  is  to  have  the  water  boiling 
over  an  alcohol  or  gas  lamp  near  the  bedside. 

Put  two  layers  of  coarse,  soft  flannel  (an  old  blanket 
is  good)  in  the  center  of  a  towel ;  dip  this  into  BOILING 
water,  wring  it  out  by  twisting  the  ends  of  the  towel, 
give  the  flannel  a  quick  shake,  and  apply  the  flannel ; 
cover  with  oiled  muslin  or  oiled  paper. 

As  hot  applications  promote  suppuration  there  are 
conditions  when  their  use  is  contra-indicated  and  cold 
applications  are  ordered. 

The  most  effectual  way  of  applying  continuous  cold 
is  by  means  of  the  ice  cap.  The  pieces  of  ice  put  into 
the  cap  should  be  about  the  size  of  a  walnut ;  it  should 
never  be  more  than  half  filled,  and  the  air  should  be 
expelled  before  putting  on  the  cover.  Salt  is  some- 
times mixed  with  the  ice  to  intensify  the  cold.  The 
cap  should  be  tied  in  an  old  handkerchief  or  piece  of 
gauze  to  prevent  the  rubber  from  coming  next  the  skin, 
as  the  extreme  cold  is  very  irritating,  and  may  even 
produce  frost  bites. 


Cold 
Applications 


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62  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

ice  Caps          When  ice  caps  are  being-  used  all  the  ice  must  not 
be  allowed  to  melt  before  the  cap  is  refilled,  as  the 
reaction  caused  by  the  resulting  change  of  temperature 
"is  very  injurious,  especially  if  there  is  any  inflamma- 
tion. 


ICE  CAPS 

compresses  For  the  application  of  cold  to  the  head,  old  hand- 
kerchiefs or  pieces  of  soft  gauze  can  be  used,  folded 
so  that  they  will  come  down  well  over  the  temples,  but 
not  touch  the  pillow.  They  must  not  be  wide  enough 
to  wet  the  hair,  or  come  far  down  over  the  eyes.  Com- 
presses should  not  be  made  too  wet.  The  best  scheme 
is  to  have  a  piece  of  ice  in  a  basin,  and  two  compresses, 
then  while  one  is  on  the  forehead  the  other  can  remain 
rolled  round  the  ice. 

Compresses  for  .the  eye  should  be  small  and  very 
light.  If  both  eyes  need  the  compresses  two  separate 
ones  should  be  used.  If  only  one  eye  is  affected  be 
careful  that  the  compress  on  it  does  not  touch  the 
other,  lest  it  should  become  infected.  If  gauze  is  used 
for  compresses  always  turn  the  ends  in,  that  the 
ravellings  may  not  annoy  the  patient. 


654 


HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK. 

PART  -I. 


Read  Carefully,  Place  your  name  and  address  on  the 
first  sheet  of  the  test.  Use  a  light  grade  of  paper  and  write 
on  one  side  of  the  sheet  only.  Do  not  copy  answers  from 
the  lesson  paper.  Use  your  own  words,  so  that  your  in- 
structor may  know  that  you  understand  the  subject.  Carry 
out  the  directions  given  in  the  text,  if  possible,,  before  answer- 
ing the  questions. 

1.  What  is  expected  of  the  nurse? 

2.  Give   the  period   of   incubation,   first   symptoms, 

and  time  required  for  isolation  for:  (a) 
Mumps,  (b)  Measles,  (c)  Smallpox,  (d) 
Scarlet  fever,  (e)  Diphtheria. 

3.  What    are    the    causes    of    cholera     infantttm? 

Symptoms?  What  are  the  symptoms  of  in- 
testinal obstruction  ? 

4.  What  are  the   most  common  causes  of  convul- 

sions in  children  ?    What  should  be  done  ? 

5.  What    are    the    primary    symptoms    of    typhoid 

fever?     Of  pneumonia?     Of  meningitis? 

6.  What  is  the  difference  between  false  croup  and 

true  croup  in  symptoms,  danger,  and  treat- 
ment ? 

7.  Describe  the  ideal  sick  room. 

8.  How  should  the  sweeping  and  dusting  be  done? 

How  prepare  for  the  night? 

9.  Why  is  ventilation  in  the  sick  room  important? 

Describe  different  methods. 

10.     Make  the  bed  as  explained  in  the  lesson  and  then 
describe  the  process. 


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HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

11.  Endeavor  to  change  the  bedclothes  with  a  per- 

son in  bed  and  report  your  success. 

12.  The  points  suggested  in  the  section  on  the  "Care 

of  the  Patient"  are  all  essential.     What  ones 
might  you  neglect  if  you  had  no  experience  ? 

13.  What   must  be   guarded   against   in   lifting   and 

moving  a  helpless  patient  ? 

14.  How  would  you  change  a  patient  from  one  bed 

to  another? 

15.  What  are  bed  sores  and  how  can  they  be  guarded 

against  ? 

16.  How  would  you  wash  the  hair? 

17.  Describe  the  process  of  giving  a  bath  in  bed. 

1 8.  How  can  the  heat  of  the  blood  be  found?    Why 

is  it  important? 

19.  How  would  you  count  the  pulse? 

20.  Mention  some  of  the  points  in  a  patient's  condi- 

tion that  should  be  noted  and  recorded? 

21.  What  rules  should  be  observed  in  giving  medi- 

cines ? 

22.  What  are  the  different  kinds  of  enemata?     How 

given  ? 

23.  What  devices  can  be  tried  before  catheterization 

is  attempted? 

24.  How  is  a  linseed  poultice  made  and  applied  ? 

25.  What  is  a  sinapism?    A  fomentation? 

26.  How  is  cold  applied  to  relieve  pain? 

27.  Do   you   understand   everything   in    this    lesson  ? 

What  questions  occur  to  you? 

NOTE. — After  completing  the  test  sign  your  full  name. 


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HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

PART   II 


CONTAGION;   DISINFECTION— NUESING  IN  CONTA- 
GIOUS DISEASES 

We  have  learned  in  our  study  of  Household  Bac- 
teriology that  nearly  all  diseases,  especially  those  com- 
ing under  the  head  of  infectious  and  contagious,  are 
caused  by  certain  species  of  bacteria. 

If  we  would  be  immune  from  these  diseases,  then 
we  must  do  everything  in  our  power  to  exclude  these 
germs.  Cleanliness,  plenty  of  sunlight  and  fresh  air, 
are  the  first  requisites  for  their  exclusion ;  and,  when 
disease  has  entered,  proper  isolation  and  disinfection  to 
prevent  their  spread. 

By  disinfection  we  mean  destruction  of  the  bacteria 
by  use  of  certain  chemicals  or  heat.  Heat,  when  it 
can  be  used,  is  always  the  surest  and  quickest  method. 
The  rules  for  disinfection,  or  sterilizing  by  heat,  will 
be  given  under  the  head  of  "Surgical  Operations  at 
Home." 

The  disinfectants  most  commonly  used  in  illness 
are  bichloride  of  mercury,  i-iooo,  for  the  hands  and 
utensils,  and  carbolic  acid,  1-20,  for  the  clothes,  instru- 
ments, etc.  Bichloride  is  the  stronger  disinfectant, 
but  as  it  discolors  clothes  and  instruments  it  should 
not  be  used  for  them. 


657 


Bichloride 
of  Mercury 


Carbolic 
Acid 


Infection 

and 

Contagion 


64  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

MAKING  DISINFECTANT  SOLUTIONS 

A  bottle  of  blue  bichloride  tablets  can  be  bought  at 
any  chemist's;  this  is  the  safest  form  to  use  it  in  the 
home,  as  the  tablets  make  a  blue  solution.  The  bi- 
chloride is  perfectly  odorless,  and  if  the  clear,  uncol- 
ored  solution  were  used  it  might  be  mistaken  for 
water.  As  this  is  a  very  strong  poison  the  tablets 
should  be  kept  always  under  lock  and  key,  and  out  of 
the  reach  of  children.  It  is  well  to  have  a  bottle 
of  tablets  in  the  house  at  all  times,  to  use  in  case  of 
cuts,  etc.  They  contain  salt,  which  is  always  required 
in  making  bichloride  solution. 

To  make  bichloride  solution  dissolve  one  tablet  in 
a  quart  of  hot  water. 

When  a  large  quantity  of  carbolic  acid  solution 
will  be  required  continually,  it  is  cheaper  to  buy  the 
95  per  cent  solution,  which  can  be  reduced  as  needed 
to  the  required  strength.  To  make  five  pints  of  1-20, 
mix  four  ounces  of  the  95  per  cent  carbolic  with  five 
pints  of  boiling  water  and  shake  the  bottle  well. 

As  95  per  cent  carbolic  is  not  only  a  strong  poison, 
but  also  very  corrosive  to  the  skin,  so  be  careful  not  to 
spill  even  a  drop  on  your  hands,  but  if  you  should, 
wash  the  spot  immediately  with  alcohol  or  warm  water 
and  soap. 

An  infectious  disease  is  not  always  a  contagious 
one;  that  is,  it  cannot  be  contracted  by  being  in  the 
same  room  with  the  patient,  but  it  is  transmittable 
by  some  intermediate  means  of  communication. 


658 


CONTAGION  AND  DISINFECTION 


65 


Tuberculosis  is  not  contracted  by  coming  in  contact 
with  a  patient  suffering  from  that  disease,  but  by 
inhaling  dust  containing  the  germs  derived  from  the 
dried  sputa  of  some  consumptive  person. 

The  germs  of  typhoid  fever  are  disseminated  when 
the  stools  and  other  excreta  of  the  patient  are  not 
properly  disinfected  by  those  in  charge. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  isolate  patients  suffering  from 
diseases  of  this  kind,  but  it  is  necessary  to  disinfect, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  infection ;  thus,  know- 
ing that  the  germ  of  typhoid  fever  is  in  the  stools, 
and  to  some  extent  in  the  urine,  the  stools  and  urine 
must  always  be  disinfected  by  covering  with  bichloride, 
i-iooo,  and  letting  stand  half  an  hour  before  empty- 
ing. The  bed  pan  must  be  well  washed  and  disin- 
fected afterward.  It  is  also  a  wise  precaution  to 
disinfect  the  bed-clothes  by  soaking  in  carbolic,  1-20, 
for  twelve  hours,  and  then  boiling;  also  to  keep  uten- 
sils and  dishes  used  for  the  patient  separate,  boiling 
them  before  they  are  again  mixed  with  the  household 
supply. 

Consumption,  or  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs,  is  per- 
haps the  most  dreaded  disease  of  the  present  day. 
There  are  more  deaths  from  it  than  from  any  other, 
except  in  times  of  epidemic.  The  sputum  of  patients 
suffering  from  this  disease  contains  many  millions  of 
the  bacilli.  If  this  is  deposited  in  places  where  it  is 
allowed  to  dry  and  become  pulverized,  it  is  a  source  of 
danger  to  others,  The  sputum  must,  therefore3  b§ 
disinfected, 


Disinfection 

Without 

Isolation 


Consumption 


66 


HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 


Patients  suffering  from  this  disease  should  be  pro- 
vided with  sanitary  cups.  The  best  for  this  purpose 
are  made  of  prepared  paper  and  are 
very  cheap.  These  should  be  burnt 
after  being  in  use  for  twelve  hours 
at  most.  If  these  cannot  be  obtained, 
porcelain  ones  with  covers  may  be 
used,  but  bichloride  or  carbolic  must 

Sanitary  Cup.  alwayg     remajn    in    the    cupj     and    it 

should  be  emptied  and  scalded  frequently.  The  patient 
should  not  use  ordinary  handkerchiefs,  but  gauze  or 
Japanese  paper,  which  should  be  burnt.  All  clothing 


Paper  Sanitary  Cup. 


and  bedding  soiled  by  the  sputa  should  be  disinfected 
in  the  usual  manner,  and  the  sufferer  should  wash 
and  disinfect  the  hands  frequently. 

Perfect   cleanliness,   plenty   of   sunlight  and   fresh 


66Q 


CONTAGION  AND  DISINFECTION  6? 

air,  and  nourishing  food  are  the  most  important  points 
in  the  modern  treatment  of  consumption.  Special  care 
should  be  taken  by  consumptives  to  smother  every 
cough  when  close  to  other  people. 

CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES 

Measles,  scarlet  fever,  smallpox  and  diphtheria  are 
not  only  infectious  but  also  contagious,  and  can  be 
taken  by  touching  the  person  or  anything  that  has 
come  in  contact  with  the  patient. 

Anyone  who  has  been  in  the  room  with  a  patient 
suffering  from  any  one  of  these  diseases  can  scatter 
the  germs  far  and  wide;  this  must  be  remembered, 
especially  by  those  who  do  the  nursing.  It  is  an  abso- 
lute necessity  for  them  to  go  out  every  day,  but  before 
doing  so  they  should  change  all  their  clothes,  and  wash 
face  and  hands  with  bichloride,  i-iooo.  As  it  would 
be  impossible  to  wash  the  hair  every  time,  it  should 
be  covered  by  a  cap,  while  on  duty.  Even  when  all 
these  precautions  have  been  taken,  shops,  theaters,  and 
street  cars  should  be  avoided. 

The  rules  of  isolation  are  these: 

(1)  The  patient  should  be  removed  to  a  room  as 
remote  as  possible  from  the  rest  of  the  house. 

(2)  No  one  should  be  allowed  to  enter  the  room 
except  the  physicians  and  attendants. 

(3)  Long-sleeved  aprons  and  caps  which  will  cover 
the  hair  should  be  worn  by  physicians  and  attendants 
while  in  the-  room.      (These  can  be  made  of  cheap 
muslin.) 


Rules  of 
Isolation 


661 


68 


HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 


Disinfection 
of  Clothes 


Dishes 

and 

Utensils 


(4)  A   solution  of  bichloride,    i-iooo,   should   be 
kept  by  the  wash  basin  for  the  disinfection  of  hands, 
and  they  should  be  disinfected  every  time  after  touch- 
ing or  doing  anything  for  the  patient.     For  proper 
isolation  there  should  be  two  rooms, — the  wash  stand, 
gowns,    disinfectants,    etc.,    being   kept    in    the    outer 
room. 

(5)  A  foot  tub  or  other  receptacle  containing  car- 
bolic,  i -20,  should  be  placed  near  the  bedside  when 
the  clothes  are  about  to  be  changed,  and  they  should 
be  put   immediately   into   this,    remaining   there   well 
covered   for   twenty-four  hours.     They   should,   even 
then,  be  boiled  before  being  washed. 

(6)  The  advice  given  earlier  as  to  the  furnishing 
and  care  of  the  sick-room  is  especially  applicable  in 
cases   of   contagious   diseases.      When    dusting,    the 
duster  should  be  dampened  in  1-40  carbolic.     As  bare 
floors  are  apt  to  be  noisy,  a  small  rug  or  two  may  be 
retained,  but  they  should  be  old  ones,  as  they  ought 
to  be  burned  at  the  termination  of  the  disease.     They 
must  not  be  shaken,  as  at  other  times,  but  kept  well 
dusted  with  the  damp  duster. 

(7)  It  is  well  to  keep  sheets,  wrung  out  in  car- 
bolic, i -20,  both  between  the  two  rooms  set  apart  for 
the  nursing  and  at  the  entrance  of  the  outer  room. 
The  door  of  the  latter  must  be  kept  closed. 

(8)  The  dishes  and  utensils  used  by  the  patient 
and  attendants  must  not  be  removed  from  the  room; 
they  must  be  washed  there,  the  patient's  always  being 


fifi? 


CONTAGION  AND  DISINFECTION  69 

washed  and  kept  separate.  When  food  is  brought  it 
should  be  left  at  the  door  of  the  outer  room.  The 
attendant,  first  taking  off  her  cap  and  apron  and  disin- 
fecting her  hands,  should  remove  the  food  from  those 
dishes  to  the  ones  she  has  in  the  room ;  the  others 
should  be  removed  immediately. 

(9)  Whenever   it  can   be   managed    the    isolated 
rooms  should  be  in  close  connection  with  a  bath-room, 
which  should  be  set  apart  for  the  use  of  the  inmates 
of  the  sick-room.    When  this  is  impossible  the  attend- 
ant must,  when  it  is  necessary  to  go  there,  first  remove 
her  cap  and  apron  and  disinfect  her  hands.    When  her 
object  is  to  empty  the  slop  jar  or  bed  pan  they  should 
be  completely  covered  with  a  large  towel  wrung  out  in 
carbolic. 

(10)  The  bed  pan  should  always  have  bichloride, 
i-iooo,  in  the  bottom,  and  after  use  more  of  the  same 
solution  should  be  added.     It  should  stand  thus  for 
half  an  hour  before  being  emptied.    When  there  is  no 
separate  bath-room  a  tightly  covered  box  nailed  on  the 
outside  window  sill  of  the  outer  room  will  be  found 
convenient  to  hold  the  bed  pan,  while  its  contents  are 
being  disinfected. 

Besides  the  general  rules  for  disinfection  there  are 
in  some  contagious  diseases  special  rules,  incidental  to 
the  nature  of  the  disease. 

In  scarlet  fever  the  greatest  danger  of  infection  lies 
in  the  dissemination  of  the  skin,  while  it  is  peeling. 
To  prevent  this  the  patient  should  be  rubbed  all  over, 


Separate 
Bath  Roona 


Special 
Rules 


663 


70  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

night  and  morning,  with  carbolized  vaseline  or  boric 
ointment. 

In  diphtheria  the  most  virulent  contagion  is  in  the 
expectoration,  especially  when  the  membrane  loosens. 
Soft  gauze  should  be  used  instead  of  handkerchiefs, 
and  if  there  is  no  grate  in  the  room  a  pan  must  be  at 
hand,  in  which  these  can  be  burnt  immediately  after 
use. 


Time  of 
Quarantine 


DISINFECTION  AT  THE   TERMINATION   OF  THE   DISEASE 

Even  after  the  fever  has  abated  it  is  necessary  to 
keep  the  patient  isolated,  or  "in  quarantine,"  as  it  is 
called,  for  some  days.  A  rough  estimate  of  the  time 
required  for  quarantine  in  the  different  diseases  is 
given  in  the  table  in  the  first  section,  but  the  doctor 
should  always  be  the  one  to  decide  when  it  may  be 
raised,  as  circumstances  or  complications  may  arise 
which  might  make  it  allowable  to  shorten  or  neces- 
sary to  lengthen  the  time. 

When  the  doctor  does  allow  the  patient  to  be  moved, 
a  warm  cleansing  bath  (including  the  washing  of  the 
hair)  must  be  given.  This  is  followed  by  a  bichloride 
bath,  i-iooo,  and  an  alcohol  rub.  The  patient  is  then 
wrapped  in  a  clean  sheet  and  taken  to  a  different 
room,  where  fresh  clothes  which  have  not  been  in  the 
sick-room  are  put  on.  Those  who  have  done  the  nurs- 
ing must  go  through  the  same  procedure. 


664 


CONTAGION  AND  DISINFECTION  J\ 

THE  DISINFECTION  OF  THE  ROOM  AND  ITS  CONTENTS 

The  use  of  sulphur  fumes  as  a  disinfectant  has  been 
proved  to  be  practically  useless,  and  formaldehyde  has 
almost  entirely  replaced  it.  The  easiest  form  of  using 
this  is  the  "Pure  Formaldehyde  Gas"  put  up  by  Sea- 
bury  &  Johnson.  It  can  be  procured  at  most  drug- 
gists. In  appearance  it  looks  like  a  stone,  cone  shaped. 
There  are  two  sizes ;  the  smaller,  2  inches  square,  will 
disinfect  a  room  500  cubic  feet,  and  the  larger  one, 
1000  to  1500  cubic  feet.  Close  the  windows,  pasting 
paper  over  all  the  cracks ;  pull  down  the  blinds ;  open 
cupboards,  drawers,  bundles,  etc.,  that  everything  may 
be  exposed  to  the  fumes  of  the  gas;  place  the  fumi- 
gator  on  the  top  of  an  inverted  pail — it  must  not  be  too 
near  the  floor,  or  it  may  scorch  it — set  fire  to  the  top 
of  it,  and  leave  the  room ;  lock  the  door  and  paste  up 
the  cracks  and  key  hole. 

Leave  the  room  thus  for  five  or  six  hours,  then 
open  all  the  windows,  if  possible  allowing  them  to 
remain  open  for  twelve  hours. 

Books  and  toys  used  in  the  sick-room  should  be 
burned,  as  they  are  hard  to  disinfect. 

Unless  the  mattress  can  be  baked  it  should  be 
opened,  so  that  the  formaldehyde  can  penetrate 
through  to  its  center.  In  all  large  cities  there  are  bake 
houses  where  such  things  may  be  sent  for  disinfection 
at  comparatively  small  cost.  They  should  be  carefully 
wrapped  up. 


Disinfecting 
with  Formalde- 
hyde 


The 
Mattress 


665 


72  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

PERSONAL  PRECAUTIONS  TO  BE  TAKEN  BY  THOSE  NURSING 
CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES 

(1)  Take  sufficient  sleep  and  rest;  never  in  the 
patient's  room.     It  is  when  the  muscles  are  relaxed, 
as  they  are  when  resting,  that  the  greatest  danger  of 
infection  comes. 

(2)  A  daily  walk  in  the  fresh  air  is  necessary. 

(3)  A  daily  bath;  change  of  all  clothing  at  least 
three  times  a  week.    The  clothing  must  be  disinfected. 

(4)  When  working  over  the  patient  never  stoop 
so  that  you  inhale  her  breath.     Never  kiss  your  pa- 
tient. 

Personal          (5)     Never  put  your  hands  to  your  face,  especially 
Disinfection      vour  mOuth  or  eyes,  without  first  disinfecting  them. 

(6)  Disinfect  your  hands  frequently  in  bichloride 
of  mercury,  i-iooo.   Keep  the  nails  short  and  scrupu- 
lously  clean.      When    washing   the   hands   wash    the 
soap  off  before  putting  them  into  bichloride,  or  they 
will  soon  become  sore. 

(7)  Before  meals  wash  and  disinfect  your  hands 
well,   rinse  your  mouth   with  boric   acid   solution  or 
listerine.    Never  eat  in  the  patient's  room. 

(8)  When  irrigating  a  diphtheria  patient's  throat 
tie  a  handkerchief  over  your  mouth,  and  wear  glasses 
to  protect  the  eyes. 

The  nursing  in  infectious  and  contagious  diseases 
is  the  same  as  in  all  other  cases  of  fever.  While  the 
temperature  is  high  the  patient  should  be  kept  in  the 
recumbent  position  to  avoid  strain  upon  the  heart. 


666 


SURGICA1  OPERATIONS  73 

In  typhoid  this  position  is  particularly  necessary,  as 
hemorrhage  from  the  intestines  is  liable  to  occur  if  it 
is  not  strictly  adhered  to. 

Nourishment  and  medication  must  be  given  exactly      Nourishment 
as  ordered.    When  the  doctor  orders  fluids  give  noth- 
ing solid;  many  a  life,  especially  after  typhoid,  has 
been  lost  by  so  doing. 

Except  when  the  patient  is  nauseated,  unless  con- 
trary to  orders,  give  plenty  of  water,  every  two  hours 
at  least.  See  that  the  patient  drinks  it  slowly. 

Remember  the  rules  already  given  about  the  care  of 
the  mouth,  especially  with  typhoid  patients.  Vaseline 
applied  to  parched  lips  gives  relief. 

In  measles  and  scarlet  fever  the  eyes  are  apt  to  be      care  of 
affected,  so  the  room  should  be  kept  darker  than  in 
other  cases,  and  the  eyes  should  be  washed  with  boric 
acid,  always  bathing  from  the  inner  angle  outward. 

In  all  diseases  where  the  skin  is  not  working  prop- 
erly, as  in  measles,  scarlet  and  other  eruptive  fevers, 
be  especially  observant  of  the  urine  as  various  kidney 
complications  are  liable  to  ensue. 

There  is  little  danger  of  the  patient  catching  cold 
while  the  temperature  is  high,  but  when  it  begins  to 
lower  be  doubly  careful. 

SURGICAL  OPERATIONS  AT  HOME  * 

For  twenty-four  hours  previous  to  operation  the 
patient  should  be  given  broths  every  two  hours,  but 
neither  milk  nor  solid  food.  A  cathartic  is  given,  if 
possible,  thirty  hours  prior  to  operation,  and  repeated 

*This  section  is  optional. 


667 


74  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

in  six  hours ;  a  soap  suds  enema  is  given  three  hours 
after  the  first  cathartic,  and  repeated  twelve  hours 
before  operation.  A  bath  is  also  given  the  afternoon 
before,  and  after  the  bath  the  field  of  operation  is 
Pre  aration  'snaved,  then  thoroughly  cleansed  with  green  soap, 
o  elation  anc*  a  compress  wet  wn"n  STQQn  soaP  solution,  25  per 
cent  to  50  per  cent,  applied  (the  liquid  green  soap 
which  is  used  for  this  purpose  can  be  obtained  at  any 
druggist's)  ;  this  is  covered  with  a  protector — oil  mus- 
lin or  oil  paper — and  left  on  from  three  to  six  hours,  as 
the  skin  will  bear.  When  removed,  the  surface  is 
washed  in  the  following  order,  with  green  soap,  ether, 
alcohol,  and  solution  bichloride  of  mercury,  i-iooo;  a 
compress  wet  in  the  latter  is  applied  covered  with  a 
protector,  and  left  on  till  an  hour  before  operation, 
when  the  process  is  repeated  and  the  fresh  bichloride 
compress  is  left  on  till  the  doctor  removes  it  on  the 
operating  table,  after  the  patient  is  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  anaesthetic;  then  he  re-scrubs  it,  and  the 
ether,  alcohol,  and  bichloride  must  be  ready  for  him 
to  use.  All  these  precautions  are  taken  to  kill  or  re- 
move every  bacterium  or  spore. 

For  a  vaginal  operation  the  rules  for  diet,  catharsis, 
enemata  and  bathing  are  the  same  as  for  any  other. 
In  addition  a  green  soap  douche  is  given  on  the  pre- 
ceding day,  followed  by  one  of  bichloride  of  mercury, 
1-5000.  The  vulva  is  then  covered  with  a  pad  wet  in 
solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury,  i-iooo,  until  two 
hours  before  operation,  when  another  bichloride  douche 


668 


SURGICAL  OPERATIONS  75 

is  given,  the  parts  cleansed  and  a  fresh  bichloride  pad 
applied. 

Just  before  the  anaesthetic  is  given,  the  patient 
should  void  urine.  If  she  has  false  teeth  they  should 
be  removed. 

The  Room.  In  the  choice  of  the  room  the  light  is  The  Room 
one  of  the  first  considerations,  a  good  light  being  a 
positive  necessity.  If  possible  the  operation  should 
take  place  in  a  different  room  from  the  one  the  patient 
is  occupying  beforehand.  Remove  rugs,  carpets,  all 
unnecessary  furniture,  curtains  and  draperies.  A  piece 
of  cheesecloth  tacked  across  the  lower  sash  of  the 
windows  will  keep  the  light  from  being  too  glaring 
and  obstruct  the  view  from  outside. 

The.  day  before  the  operation  the  walls  should  be 
dusted,  especially  the  cornices  and  mouldings ;  the 
floor  should  be  scrubbed  if  possible,  or  at  least  wiped 
with  a  damp  cloth  and  it  should  be  washed  over  again 
the  morning  of  operation  after  the  furniture  is  in 
place. 

If  the  patient  is  to  remain  in  the  room  after  the 
operation,  have  the  bed  as  nearly  in  the  position  it  is  to 
occupy  later  as  possible,  but  out  of  the  way. 

Protect  the  floor  under  and  around  the  operating 
table  with  several  thicknesses  of  paper,  covered  with  a 
sheet  tacked  down  at  the  corners. 

A  kitchen  table  covered  with  a  couple  of  old  blankets 
protected  by  a   rubber  pinned   or   tacked   under  the      Table 
table  will  answer  for  the  operating  table.    Three  small 


669 


76  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

tables  should  be  at  hand,  protected  with  papers,  cov- 
ered with  large  sterile  towels.  On  one  table,  con- 
venient to  his  right  hand,  the  surgeon  will  need  his 
instruments.  On  the  second  table  have  three  bowls 
which  have  been  well  washed  first  with  soap  and  hot 
water,  then  bichloride,  i-iooo.  The  inside  of  the 
bowls  should  not  be  dried.  One  bowl  is  intended  to 
hold  the  solution  for  the  disinfection  of  the  surgeon's 
and  his  assistant's  hands,  the  other  two  for  washing 
the  sponges.  The  third  table  is  required  for  the 
dressings  and  sterile  towels.  The  former,  the  doctor 
will  provide  or  tell  you  where  to  get  them.  Very 
sterile  ren'able  sterile  dressings  are  now  put  up  by  Ellwood 
Dressings  Lee,  and  can  be  procured  at  any  drug  store.  They 
are  really  better  than  anything  that  can  be  prepared 
without  a  sterilizer.  If  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  these, 
the  dressings  should  be  prepared  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  towels,  namely,  rolled  in  bundles  not  more  than 
9  inches  square  (or  the  heat  will  not  penetrate)  and 
steamed  in  the  clothes  boiler  for  at  least  one  hour. 
If  there  is  no  tray  to  keep  them  out  of  the  water  a 
hammock  of  gauze  will  answer  the  purpose.  They  are 
then  dried  in  the  oven,  which  must  not  be  hot  enough 
to  scorch  them. 

At  least  a  dozen  and  a  half  towels  will  be  required. 
The  surgeon  will  bring  the  instruments  and  anaesthetic. 
If  chloroform  is  administered,  some  vaseline  will  be 
required  to  grease  the  patient's  face. 


SURGICAL  OPERATIONS 


77 


An  ether  cone  can  be  made  out  of  paper,  covered 
with  a  towel. 

An  irrigator  or  douche  bag  must  be  at  hand  for  the 
irrigation.  This  should  be  sterilized  by  boiling  for  five 
minutes,  as  are  also  the  surgical  instruments. 

There  must  be  plenty  of  sterilized  water  prepared, 
six  gallons  at  least,  two  gallons 
of  which  must  be  boiled  long 
enough  beforehand  to  be  cold. 
This  must  be  kept  tightly  cov- 
ered after  it  is  boiled,  or  it  will 
not  remain  sterile.  Water  must 
boil  at  least  thirty  minutes  to  be 
properly  sterilized. 

Bichloride,    carbolic    and    salt 
solutions    may    be    needed    and 

,1          ,t        j  11  Ether  Cone,  made  from  stiff 

lllUSt   DC  at  hand,  as  well,  as  tWO         paper,  covered  with 

sterile  pitchers,   a   pus   basin,   a 

chair,  a  blanket  or  two  to  cover  the  patient,  two  rub- 
bers to  protect  the  blanket,  a  slop  jar,  hypodermic 
syringe,  and  stimulants — the  doctor  will  give  definite 
instructions  regarding  the  last. 

The  bed  is  made  according  to  the  directions  already 
given  for  bedmaking,  with  the  exception  that  no  pillow 
will  be  required  as  the  patient's  head'  must  be  kept  low. 
Instead,  a  small  rubber  covered  by  a  towel  is  desirable 
to  protect  the  bed  if  the  patient  is  nauseated.  A 
blanket  is  put  over  the  patient,  before  the  upper  sheet ; 
hot  water  bottles  should  be  in  the  bed  all  the  time  she 


Sterilized 
"Water 


The  Bed 


671 


After  the 
Operation 


78  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

is  on  the  table;  a  couple  of  towels  and  pus  basin 
should  be  on  a  table  near  the  bed  in  case  of  nausea, 
also  small  pieces  of  gauze  to  wipe  the  mucus  out  of 
the  mouth,  and  a  wedge-shaped  piece  of  wood  to  put 
between  the  teeth  if  they  become  clenched. 

If  necessary  to  assist  the  surgeon  during  the  opera- 
tion, scrub  the  hands  for  ten  minutes  with  hot  water 
and  soap,  using  a  new  stiff  nail  brush  which  has  been 


PORCELAIN  BED  PAN 

soaked  in  carbolic,  1-20.  Be  particularly  careful  of  the 
finger  nails,  which  should  be  cut  very  short.  After 
scrubbing,  the  hands  should  be  soaked  in  bichloride, 

I-IOOO. 

Nobody,  whose  hands  have  not  been  so  treated, 
must  touch  the  dressings  or  instruments,  and  after 
washing  nothing  but  the  sterile  things  must  be  touched. 

When  the  operation  is  over,  if  the  patient's  night- 
gown is  wet  it  must  be  changed.  She  is  then  covered 
with  a  warmed  blanket,  and  put  into  bed.  She  should 
lie  on  her  back  without  pillows  and  be  kept  very  quiet. 


672 


SURGICAL  OPERATIONS 


79 


If  she  vomits,  hold  her  head  on  one  side  to  prevent 
strangulation. 

Washing  the  mouth  out,  as  previously  directed,  will 
help  to  relieve  the  thirst  which  is  generally  intense 
after  an  anaesthetic. 

After  a  few  hours  either  crushed  ice  or  very  hot 
water,  in  teaspoon  doses,  may  be  given. 


Bed  Pan,  "Eureka"  Pattern 

The  pulse  must  be  watched  carefully,  and  if  its  rate 
increases  should  be  reported  to  the  doctor,  as  this, 
together  with  pallor,  restlessness,  longing  for  fresh  air, 
sighing  respiration,  and  fall  of  temperature  is  a  sign 
of  hemorrhage.  As  the  hemorrhage  does  not  always 
show  through  the  dressing  these  signs  must  be  watched 
for. 

For  treatment  of  hemorrhage  see  the  section  on 
"Emergencies."  As  the  after  treatment  depends  alto- 
gether on  the  nature  of  the  operation,  and  subsequent 
condition  of  the  patient,  no  rules  for  it  can  be  given 
here  further  than  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  the  first 
requisite  for  success  in  surgical  work  is  perfect  clean- 
liness. The  gauze  used  for  dressing  the  wound  after 
the  operation,  the  instruments  and  the  hands  of  those 


The   Pulse 


Perfect 
Cleanliness 


673 


8o  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

touching  these  things,   must   always   be  as   carefully 
sterilized  for  the  dressing  as  for  the  operation. 

The  diet,  like  the  treatment,  will  depend  upon  cir- 
cumstances. For  the  first  day  or  two  the  patient  is 
generally  on  fluid  diet,  and  care  must  be  taken  that  it 
is  given  slowly  and  in  small  quantities,  but  as  soon  as 
possible  plenty  of  nourishing  food  should  be  given  to 
build  up  the  system. 

OBSTETRICS 

The  average  duration  of  pregnancy  is  28!  days. 
The  most  accurate  way  of  calculating  the  probable  date 
of  confinement  is  by  counting  back  three  months  from 
the  date  of  the  cessation  of  the  last  menses  and  adding 
seven  days. 

Preliminary  The  expectant  mother  should  place  herself  under 
the  doctor's  care  in  the  early  stages  of  pregnancy,  as 
not  only  her  own  but  the  infant's  after  health  depends 
largely  on  the  care  the  mother  takes  of  herself  at  this 
time.  The  principal  rules  of  hygiene  to  be  followed 
are: 

1.  Daily  exercise  in  the  open  air. 

2.  At  least  eight  hours'  sleep  out  of  twenty-four. 

3.  A  daily  bath,  a  sponge  bath  if  the  tub  bath  is 
too  exhausting.    A  brisk  rub  after  the  bath  will  cause 
a  good  reaction. 

4.  The  bowels  should  be  moved  daily,  with  mild 
cathartics  if  necessary. 


674 


OBSTETRICS  81 

5.  The  urine  must  be  carefully  watched  and  any 
abnormality  reported  to  the  doctor.     Frequent  speci- 
mens should  also  be  sent  him,  as  there  may  be  danger 
of  serious  kidney  troubles. 

6.  Freedom   from   excitement,   worry,   hurry,   and 
too  heavy  manual  labor. 

7.  The  clothing  should  be  worn  loose  enough  to 
allow  of  free  circulation. 

8.  A    nourishing,    but    not    too     stimulating     diet 
should  be  adhered  to. 

9.  The  nipples  require  attention,  especially  during 
the  last  two  months,  and  should  be  washed  twice  daily 
with  boric  acid  solution  and  treated  with  fresh  cocoa 
butter  or  albolene. 

What  to  provide :  For  tho 

1.  Two  large  rubber  sheets.  Mother 

2.  If  possible,  a  Kelly  Pad,  if  not,  make  an  obstet- 
rical pad,  consisting  of  four  thicknesses  of  cotton  wad- 
ding, covered  with  a  layer  of  absorbent  cotton,  the 
whole  encased  in  absorbent  gauze  and  tacked  to  keep 
the  cotton  in  place.    This  pad  should  be  three-quarters 
of  a  yard  square. 

3.  Two  dozen  pads  for  dressings,  half  a  yard  long, 
ten  inches  wide  and  two  inches  thick,   made  of  the 
same  materials. 

4.  Two  dozen  smaller  pads. 

5.  Five  boxes  of  sterile  gauze  (each  containing  one 
yard   of  gauze),   to   be   used   both   for   the   mother's 
dressing  and  to  cover  the  baby's  cord. 


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82  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

6.     One  roll  of  adhesive  plaster. 

7-     Six  abdominal  binders  of  unbleached  muslin. 

8.     Six  breast  binders  of  unbleached  muslin. 

9-     One  pair  long  stockings  made  of  flannel  or  an 
old  blanket. 

10.  Two  dozen  paper  bags  in  which  soiled  dress- 
ings can  be  put  and  burnt. 

11.  At  least  two  hot  water  bottles. 


KELLEY  PAD. 

12.  Bed  pan— "Perfection"  is  the  best. 

13.  Douche  pan. 

14.  Douche  can  or  new  fountain  syringe  bag. 

15.  Two  glass  douche  nozzles. 

1 6.  Two  glass  catheters. 

17.  One  agate  basin  to  boil  nozzles  and  catheters  in. 

1 8.  Two  large  agate  pitchers  in  which  water  can 
be  sterilized,  solutions  made,  etc. 

19.  Clinical,  room,  and  bath  thermometers. 

20.  One  bottle  carbolic,  4  per  cent. 

21.  One  bottle  Lvsol. 


676 


OBSTETRICS  83 

22.  One  bottle  bichloride  tablets. 

23.  New  nail  brush  and  fresh  cake  of  soap  for  the 
doctor's  use. 

For  the  baby:  For  the 

1.  A  tube  of  sterile  tape.  Baby 

2.  A  rubber  sheet,  or,  preferably,  a  nursery  cloth 
to  protect  the  crib  mattress. 

3.  Talcum  powder. 

4.  Sweet  oil  or  sterile  vaseline. 

5.  Pure  castile  soap  (never  use  perfumed  soap  of 
any  kind). 

6.  Bath  tub — good  rubber  ones  are  the  best. 

7.  Old  table  linen  makes  excellent  towels  and  wash 
cloths  for  the  baby. 

8.  A  large  square  of  soft,  thick  flannel  to  roll  baby 
in  after  it  is  greased. 

9.  Basket  containing  sewing  materials  and  safety 
pins. 

10.  Crib  and  bedding. 

11.  Scales  to  weigh  the  baby  in  are  very  desirable. 

12.  A  rubber  or  padded  lap  protector  for  the  at- 
tendant to  use  while  bathing  the  baby. 

13.  A  large  flannel  apron  for  the  same  purpose. 
The  latter  is  especially  desirable  as  the  baby  can  be 
rolled  in  it,  when  taken  from  the  bath. 

14.  Baby's     clothing.:      Six     flannel     bands,     not      Clothin 
hemmed,  6  inches  wide,  three-quarters  of  a  yard  long,      'or  Baby 
Four  knitted  or  woven  shirts.     Six  flannel  petticoats. 

Six  white  petticoats ;  these  should  all  be  made  without 


677 


84  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

bands,  and  the  fastening  on  the  shoulders,  running-  a 
draw  tape  through  the  hem  of  the  flannel  petticoat, 
will  keep  the  baby's  feet  warm  without  confining  them. 
Six  slips  for  night  wear.  Six  dresses.  Diapers,  two 
sizes,  eighteen  and  twenty-two  inches  square. 

As  in  other  cases  of  sickness,  the  room  should  be  as 
large,  light,  and  airy  as  possible,  scrupulously  clean, 
and  have  no  superfluous  furniture. 

The  Bed  ^n  ^s  mstance  the  foot  of  the  bed  should  be  to- 
wards the  light.  It  should  be  made  as  shown  in  the 
section  on  bed-making,  with  the  addition  of  a  second 
rubber  covered  with  a  clean  sheet,  and  either  a  rubber 
Kelly  pad  or  an  obstetrical  pad  (made  as  already 
described). 

The  furniture  and  floor  should  be  protected  in  the 
same  manner  as  they  are  for  operations. 

Besides  the  bed  a  table  for  the  doctor,  wash  stand, 
nurse's  table,  extra  table  or  bureau  and  chair  will  be 
required.  See  that  there  is  a  hook  on  which  to  hang 
the  douche  bag. 

On  the  wash  stand  have  hot  and  cold  water,  soap, 
nail  brush,  scissors,  and  nail  cleaner,  towels,  and  bowl 
of  bichloride,  i-iooo. 

Doctor's          ^n  ^e  doctor's  table,  bowl  of  bichloride,   1-3000, 
Table      wjth  towels  and  sponges  in  it;  bowl  of  lysol,  sterile 
towels,   sterile   douche   tip,    also    rubber    and    glass 
catheter. 

Nurse's          ®n  tne  nurse's  table  have   (for  baby)   sterile  scis- 
Tabie     sors  an(j  tape  wipes  in  boric  acid   (these  consist  of 


678 


OBSTETRICS  85 

small  squares  of  gauze),  two  large  squares  of  gauze 
to  put  over  the  baby's  mouth  if  necessary  to  blow  into 
it,  soft  flannel  square  to  wrap  baby  in,  dressing  for 
cord  as  ordered  by  the  doctor. 

For  the  mother — chloroform,  mask,  pus  basin,  ster- 
ile dressing  and  pads.  Under  the  table  the  douche  pan 
(which  has  been  washed  in  bichloride  and  kept  cov- 
ered with  towel,  wrung  out  in  same),  slop  pail  and 
basin,  paper  bags  for  soiled  dressings  and  placenta, 
foot  tub,  hot  and  cold  water. 

On  the  bureau — room,  bath  and  clinical  thermom- 
eters; salt,  vinegar,  alcohol,  whisky,  hypodermic 
syringe,  binders,  pins,  hot  water  bag,  tray  and  alcohol 
lamp. 

The  signs  of  beginning  labor  are  pains  in  the  lower     First 
part  of  the  abdomen  and  back,  occurring  at  regular 
intervals,  about  once  every  half  hour,  and  a  discharge 
of  mucus  tinged  with  blood  from  the  vagina. 

True  pains  can  be  distinguished  from  false  by  plac- 
ing the  hand  over  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen ;  in 
true  pains  the  contractions  of  the  uterus  are  to  be 
readily  felt  through  the  abdominal  wall.  As  the  labor 
advances  the  pains  grow  more  severe  and  the  intervals 
shorter.  The  first  stage  of  labor  consists  in  the  dila- 
tion of  the  uterus,  and  ends  when  the  membranes  have 
ruptured  and  the  uterus  is  completely  dilated. 

The  second  stage  or  stage  of  expulsion  ends  when 
the  child  is  born. 


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86  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

The  third  stage  ends  when  the  placenta  is  expressed 
and  the  uterus  contracted  to  the  size  of  a  closed  hand. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  first  stage,  the  patient 
should  have  a  bath,  and  her  hair  braided  in  two 
braids.  Her  bowels  are  emptied  by  the  giving  of  a 
soap  suds  enema.  After  this  the  external  parts  are 
washed  with  bichloride  solution,  1-5000,  and  a  pad 
wet  .with  bichloride  solution,  i-ioooo,  or  boric  acid 
applied.  She  is  as  a  rule  allowed  to  walk  around 
the  room  during  the  first  stage,  which  may  last  from 
ten  to  twelve  hours,  and  even  longer. 

She  is  best  clad  at  this  time  in  a  night  gown,  warm 
wrapper,  and  long  stockings  made  of  flannel  or  an  old 
blanket,  coming  well  up  over  the  thigh. 

Milk  and  broths  should  be  given  every  two  hours ; 
alcohol  and  other  stimulants  must  be  withheld. 

The  patient  must  be  instructed  not  to  bear  down 
during  the  pains  of  this  stage,  and  to  sit  or  lie  down 
when  a  pain  occurs. 

The  During  the  second  stage  the  patient  must  be  kept 
Ssta"e  strictbr  in  bed.  The  wrapper  is  removed  and  a  short 
dressing  sack  put  on  in  its  place,  the  night  gown  is 
tied  up  under  the  arms,  and  with  it  a  sheet,  the  end 
of  which  comes  down  over  the  legs  covering  the 
blanket  stockings,  which  are  left  on ;  it  can  be  folded 
up  in  the  center  when  necessary. 

The  patient  usually  lies  on  her  back.  A  strong  band 
of  muslin  around  the  foot  of  the  bed,  with  the  ends  so 
that  she  can  hold  them  to  pull  on,  will  help  the  patient 
during  pains. 


680 


OBSTETRICS  87 

The  attendant's  hands  must  be  well  scrubbed  and 
disinfected  with  bichloride,  i-iooo,  that  she  may  be 
ready  to  help  the  doctor. 

If  the  doctor  does  not  arrive  in  time,  the  attendant, 
taking  all  antiseptic  precautions,  must  place  her  hand 
against  the  head  as  soon  as  it  appears  and  hold  it 
back  during  the  pains,  thus  preventing  too  rapid 
descent.  When  the  head  is  delivered  insert  the  finger 
into  the  passage  to  see  if  the  cord  be  around  the  neck, 
if  so,  pull  it  carefully  over  the  head.  The  right  hand 
supports  the  child  as  it  comes,  and  the  other  is  placed 
on  the  abdomen  and  pressed  firmly  but  gently  down- 
ward till  the  child  is  expelled.  One  hand  must  be  held 
over  the  uterus  from  this  time  until  at  least  half  an 
hour  after  the  placenta  is  expelled. 

Place  the  child  on  its  right  side  between  the  mother's  Care  of 
thighs,  wipe  out  its  eyes  and  mouth  with  swabs  wet  the  Chii<: 
in  boric  acid ;  place  gauze  over  the  mouth  and  blow 
into  it ;  if  it  does  not  cry,  slap  it  on  the  back  and  chest ; 
if  the  color  does  not  improve  the  cord  will  have  to  be 
tied  and  cut  immediately  (it  is  generally  better  to  wait 
five  minutes  before  doing  this)  and  the  child  plunged 
into  a  hot  bath.  It  is  rarely  necessary  to  do  this,  how- 
ever. The  cord  should  be  tied  tightly  with  the  sterile 
tape  about  an  inch  and  a  half  from  the  navel,  and 
again  an  inch  further  on;  it  is  then  cut  (with  sterile 
scissors)  between  the  two  knots.  The  baby  is  rubbed 
with  vaseline  or  olive  oil,  rolled  in  the  flannel  square, 
and  a  warmed  blanket,  then  put  in  its  crib  with  at  least 


681 


HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 


The 
Third 
Stage 


The 
Binder 


one  hot  water  bottle  until  the  mother  is  attended  to. 
The  placenta  is  generally  expressed  about  fifteen  or 
twenty  minutes  after  the  birth  of  the  child ;  but  even 
if  it  take  longer,  the  cord  should  not  be  pulled  upon — 
it  is  better  to  gently  manipulate  the  abdomen  above 
the  uterus,  and  continue  doing  this  very  gently  with 
one  hand  as  the  placenta  comes  out,  while  with  the 
other  hand  twist  slowly  to  aid  its  coming.  Even  after 


ENDS  OP  THE  Y  BREAST  BINDER 

the  placenta  is  expressed,  the  hand  must  remain 
pressed  downward  over  the  uterus  until  it  feels  hard 
and  firm.  An  assistant  can  in  the  meantime  be  wash- 
ing the  patient  with  bichloride,  1-2000,  and  removing 
the  soiled  linen.  When  the  uterus  is  firm  and  hard  a 
binder  should  be  applied,  a  dressing  of  sterile  gauze 
and  a  pad  being  first  placed  over  the  vulva;  this  is 
afterward  pinned  on  to  the  binder  to  keep  it  in  place. 
The  binder  is  best  made  of  unbleached  muslin.  One 
for  a  medium  size  woman  should  be  a  yard  and  a 


682 


OBSTETRICS  89 

quarter  long  and  half  a  yard  wide.  It  should,  when 
pinned  in  place,  extend  from  the  border  of  the  ribs 
to  below  the  prominence  of  the  hips,  and  should  be 
made  to  fit  the  contour  of  the  body  by  taking  in  darts 
over  the  hips  on  the  upper  and  lower  edges. 

A  binder  is  also  used  to  make  compression  upon      Y  Breast 
the  breasts.     There  are  a  variety  of  these,  but  the  Y      Binder 


Y  BREAST  BINDER  (a)  AND  ABDOMINAL 
BINDER  (b)  IN  PLACE 

breast  binder  originally  used  in  the  Boston  Lying-in 
Hospital  is  perhaps  the  easiest  one  to  manage,  and 
has  the  advantage  of  leaving  the  nipples  exposed.  A 
bandage  shaped  like  a  T  is  made  by  folding  muslin 
lengthwise  and  pinning  it  at  right  angles  to  another 
strip  folded  in  the  same  way.  The  T  is  then  made  into 
a  Y  by  making  a  diagonal  fold  in  the  middle  of  the 
cross  piece  and  fastening  the  middle  of  the  plait  with 
safety  pins. 

To  apply,  dust  the  surface  of  breasts  with  powder, 
draw  base  of  Y  beneath  the  patient's  back  until  apex 


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90  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

of  the  fork  is  external  to  the  outer  edge  of  breast. 
Lift  breasts  upward  and  toward  each  other.  Draw 
lower  arm  of  fork  snugly  across  chest  beneath  breasts, 
the  inferior  border  of  this  arm  extending  at  least  one 
inch  below  margin  of  breasts;  the  end  of  arm  is 
pinned  to  end  of  strap,  which  has  been  passed  beneath 
back;  the  lower  border  is  pinned  in  the  center  to 
abdominal  binder.  The  upper  arm  of  fork  is  then 
drawn  across  chest  above  the  breasts  and  pinned  like 
the  lower  to  the  main  strap. 

Hemorrhage  Watch  for  the  signs  of  hemorrhage  already  de- 
scribed. Should  hemorrhage  occur  send  for  the  doctor 
immediately;  induce  contractions  of  the  uterus  by 
grasping  the  fundus  and  employing  a  firm  but  gentle 
kneading  (no  doctor  would  leave  the  case  in  your 
charge  without  showing  you  exactly  how  to  do  this). 
Elevate  the  foot  of  the  bed,  and  give  a  hot  douche  of 
sterile  water,  120°  F.  Sometimes  astringents  such  as 
vinegar  are  added  to  the  douche,  but  unless  the  case 
is  very  urgent  it  is  best  not  to  use  it  without  the 
doctor's  order. 

The  patient  must  be  kept  quiet  and  on  her  back  for 
the  first  six  or  seven  hours,  afterward  she  can  turn  on 
her  side  but  should  not  sit  up  for  at  least  five  days. 
She  is  generally  allowed  to  sit  up  on  fourteenth  day, 
if  all  discharge  has  ceased.  In  no  case  should  the 
usual  routine  of  life  be  resumed  under  four  weeks. 

The  diet  is  usually  liquid  for  the  first  twenty-four 
hours,  after  which  all  symptoms  being  normal,  the 
patient  is  allowed  almost  any  easily  digested  food. 


684 


CARE  OF  THE  CHILD  91 

The  dressing  and  pad  should  be  changed  every  two 
hours  until  the  discharge  diminishes,  later  every  three 
to  five,  as  the  case  demands.  After  the  third  day  it  is 
usually  necessary  to  change  it  only  after  it  has  been 
removed  for  the  requirements  of  the  patient.  These 
dressings  must  all  be  sterile  and  the  hands  disinfected 
before  applying  them.  If  douches  are  ordered,  boil 
the  douche  nozzle  for  five  minutes  before  and  after  use. 

The  breasts  must  be  washed  with  boric  acid  solution 
before  and  after  nursing. 

THE  CARE  OF  THE  CHILD 

After  its  birth  the  child's  eyes  and  mouth  are 
cleansed  with  2  per  cent  boric  acid  solution  and  its 
whole  body  greased  with  sweet  oil  or  sterilized  vase- 
line. It  is  then  wrapped  in  warm  flannel,  put  in  a  crib 
or  basket,  heated  with  hot  water  bags  if  necessary,  and 
covered  with  a  warmed  blanket.  It  can  then  be  left 
until  the  mother  is  cared  for.  Watch  the  cord  care- 
fully as  there  is  danger  of  hemorrhage. 

The  first  bath  is  often  given  at  once,  although  some 
"doctors  prefer  to  have  the  baby  rubbed  with  oil  only  Bath 
for  the  first  few  days.  Before  beginning  have  every- 
thing necessary  together — a  foot  tub  containing  water, 
100°  F.,  bath  thermometer,  warm,  soft  towels,  wash 
cloth,  castile  soap,  dusting  powder,  a  dressing  for  the 
cord,  boric  acid  solution,  small  squares  of  gauze,  a 
rubber  lap  protector,  two  diapers,  flannel  band,  shirt, 
flannel  petticoat,  and  a  simple,  soft  white  dress. 


68§ 


92  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

The  head  is  first  washed,  using  very  little  soap, 
rinsed  and  thoroughly  dried ;  then  wash  behind  the 
ears,  the  crevices  of  the  neck,  axilla,  joints,  and  be- 
tween the  buttocks  and  thighs  carefully.  Only  the 
part  being  bathed  should  be  exposed.  The  baby  is 
now  put  down  into  the  tub  and  rinsed,  supporting  the 
head  and  back  firmly  with  the  left  hand  and  arm. 
Cover  the  lap  protector  with  flannel  apron  or  warm 
towel  and  when  you  lift  the  baby  out,  roll  this  around 
it.  Dry  by  patting;  use  very  little  powder  and  only 
when  it  is  necessary  to  prevent  chafing.  Some  doctors 
consider  it  better  not  to  put  the  baby  in  the  tub  until 
after  the  cord  is  off. 
Navel  The  navel  is  now  dressed  by  cutting  a  hole  with 

Dressing  sterile  scissors  in  a  piece  of  sterile  gauze,  which  is 
slipped  over  the  cord  and  folded  about  it.  The  cord  is 
laid  toward  the  left  side  and  a  pad  of  sterile  absorbent 
cotton  put  over  it.  A  soft  flannel  binder  holds  the  pad 
in  place  and  must  be  put  on  firmly  and  smoothly,  but 
not  too  tightly.  It  is  best  sewn  on  with  a  few  large 
stitches.  After  the  bath  the  baby  should  be  rolled  in 
warm  flannel  and  laid  on  its  right  side  in  its  crib. 

Nursing  The  Feeding.  The  first  six  weeks  the  baby  should 
nurse  every  two  hours  during  the  day  and  every  three 
hours  at  night ;  afterward  this  may  be  changed  to  every 
three  hours  during  the  day  and  twice  at  night.  These 
hours  should  be  rigidly  adhered  to.  If  the  baby  seems 
thirsty  between  meals  a  little  plain  water  may  be  given. 
The  baby's  mouth  should  be  washed  with  2  per  cent 
boric  acid  solution  before  and  after  feeding  and  also 
the  mother's  nipples. 


686 


FOOD  FOR  THE  SICK  93 

When  for  any  reason  it  is  impossible  for  the  mother 
to  nurse  the  child,  great  care  must  be  exercised  in  the 
preparation  of  its  food.  First  the  bottle  and  nipples 
must  be  thoroughly  cleansed  immediately  after  each 
feeding  by  rinsing  in  cold  water,  then  washing  in  hot 
water  and  soap  suds  and  rinsing  in  hot  water.  The 
bottle  is  kept  turned  upside  down  and  the  nipples  in 
a  2  per  cent  solution  of  boric  acid.  Both  bottle  and 
nipples  should  be  boiled  for  five  minutes  twice  a  day. 

Every  doctor  has  his  own  formula  for  prepared 
milk,  but  whatever  the  preparation  used  it  is  best 
pasteurized  if  not  above  suspicion. 

FOOD  FOB  THE  SICK 

In  many  diseases,  especially  those  accompanied  by 
fever,  the  powers  of  digestion  are  much  impaired.  For 
this,  as  well  as  other  reasons,  it  is  necessary  that  all 
food  given  should  be  in  a  liquid  form.  Milk,  except 
under  certain  conditions,  is  at  such  times  considered 
the  best  food,  as  it  contains  in  a  dilute  form  all  the 
constituents  of  the  solids,  namely :  albumen,  fat,  sugar, 
the  inorganic  salts  of  lime  and  potash,  and  water. 

If  curds  appear  in  the  stools,  or  vomiting  ensues, 
it  shows  that  the  milk  is  not  being  properly  digested. 
This  difficulty  may  often  be  overcome  by  diluting  it 
with  seltzer  or  other  effervescent  water,  by  the  addi- 
tion of  lime  water  or  bicarbonate  of  soda  (ten  grains 
to  a  pint),  or  by  peptonizing  the  milk.  (The  recipe 
for  the  latter  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  the  section.) 


687 


Amount 

and 

Frequency 


Feeding 
Cups 


94  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

A  good  substitute  for  milk  is  white  of  egg,  beaten 
to  a  froth,  diluted  with  an  equal  quantity  of  water, 
and  flavored  with  lemon  juice. 

Beef  tea  and  broths  contain  very  little  nourishment, 
and  should,  therefore,  be  given  only  occasionally,  for 
a  change. 

Patients  on  fluid  diet  should,  as  a  rule,  be  given  six 
ounces  every  two  hours,  or  half  the  quantity  every 
hour.  Of  course  there  are  times — as  after  operation, 
or  when  the  patient  is  nauseated — when  less  must  be 
given. 

When  a  patient  is  on  liquid  diet  it  is  especially  im- 
perative to  give  her  nourishment  at  stated  times  and 
regular  intervals.  In  giving  see  that  it  is  taken  very 
slowly. 

As  a  rule,  when  a  patient  is  sick  enough  to  be  on 
fluid  diet  it  is  necessary  for  her  to  maintain  the  re- 
cumbent position,  even  while  drinking,  and  there  are 
several  devices  to  facilitate  this.  There  is  the  old- 
fashioned  feeder  with  the  spout,  but  the  drinking  tube 
or  "ideal  glass"  are  preferable.  When  raising  the 
head  slip  the  arm  under  the  pillow;  take  care  not  to 
throw  the  head  forward,  and  by  so  doing  make  it 
difficult  to  swallow.  Never  bring  a  glass  to  the  patient 
in  your  hand,  but  on  a  small  tray  or  plate,  and  with 
it  a  napkin  to  fold  under  the  patient's  chin  and  pre- 
vent drops  soiling  the  sheet. 

When  a  patient  is  on  milk  diet  her  mouth  should  be 
washed  out  after  every  feeding,  with  listerine  or  boric 


688 


FOOD  FOR  THE  SICK  95 

acid,  otherwise  it  will  soon  become  coated  and  sore. 
Directions  for  doing  this  were  given  in  the  section 
on  the  care  of  the  teeth. 

A  convalescent  patient  should  be  given  solid  food  Solid 
only  by  degrees,  beginning  with  the  so-called  soft  diet, 
which  includes  broths,  strained  vegetable  soups,  soft 
cooked  eggs,  milk  toast,  junkets,  custard,  jellies,  and 
raw  beef  sandwiches.  Then  comes  "light  diet,"  which 
means  the  addition  to  the  "soft  diet"  of  underdone 
steak,  chops,  chicken,  baked  potatoes,  and  farinaceous 
puddings. 

Pastry  and  all  rich  or  highly  seasoned  food  should 
be  avoided  until  the  patient  has,  in  every  respect,  re- 
sumed her  usual  routine  of  life. 

In  diseases  such  as  rheumatism,  Bright's  disease,  g  ecial 
diabetes,  dyspepsia,  etc.,  where  fever  is  not  the  most  Diet 
important  symptom,  but  where  the  effect  of  certain 
foods  must  be  taken  into  account,  a  special  diet  is 
prescribed.  As  the  patient's  general  condition  must 
be  considered  in  the  prescribing  of  such,  I  think 
it  wise  to  make  only  a  few  general  remarks  on  the 
subject,  as  a  great  deal  of  harm  is  frequently  done  by 
following  set  rules  for  medication  and  food,  by  those 
who  are  unable  to  recognize  symptoms  contra-indi- 
cating their  use. 

In  many  forms  of  febrile  disease,  as  for  instance 
tuberculosis,  light  diet  can  be  given  even  while  there 
is  fever,  nourishing  food  being  a  most  important  item 
in  the  treatment. 


689 


Dainty 
Serving 


96  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

In  diabetes,  sugar  and  starchy  foods,  most  fruits, 
and  alcoholic  drinks  must  be  avoided.  Gluten  bread 
should  be  used,  and  that  not  too  fresh;  saccharine 
should  be  used  instead  of  sugar  for  sweetening  not 
only  tea  and  coffee,  etc.,  but  also  in  cooking.  Fresh 
milk  should  not  be  taken,  but  buttermilk  and  koumyss 
are  allowed. 

In  rheumatism  and  gout,  as  in  diabetes,  all  sweeten- 
ing should  be  done  with  saccharine,  and  sweets  of  all 
kinds  are  prohibited,  also  pastry,  puddings,  jellies, 
pork,  veal,  and  all  fried  meats.  Fruit  except  straw- 
berries and  bananas,  is  allowed. 


TRAY  WITH  FEET 

Too  great  stress  cannot  be  laid  on  the  necessity  for 
xa  dainty  serving  of  the  patient's  meals.  They  should 
be  either  very  hot  or  perfectly  cold,  as  the  case  re- 
quires. Have  clean  napkins,  spotless  china,  and  shin- 
ing silver  and  glass.  Be  careful  in  carrying  the  tray 
not  to  spill  any  of  the  fluids,  and,  as  has  been  said 
before,  do  not  have  too  much  on  the  tray  at  a  time. 

Furthermore,  that  the  patient  may  thoroughly  enjoy 
the  meal,  it  is  necessary  that  she  should  be  perfectly 


690 


FOOD  FOR  THE  SICK  97 

comfortable.  Therefore,  before  bringing  in  the  tray, 
wash  her  face  and  hands,  shake  up  the  pillows,  and 
decide  where  it  is  best  to  set  the  tray.  If  there  is  no 
bedside  table  or  tray  with  feet,  it  "is  a  good  plan  to 
have  two  blocks  of  wood  to  put  on  each  side  of  the 
patient.  They  should  be  about  the  width  of  the  tray, 
and  high  enough  to  hold  it  off  the  patient's  chest. 
Magazines  will  answer  the  purpose  if  the  blocks  can- 
not be  obtained.  Always  protect  the  night-gown  and 
bed  clothes  with  a  towel  or  table  napkin. 

RECIPES 

Milk 

In   warming  milk   for   drinking  never   allow   it  to      Ney6r 
boil,  and  always  keep  it  covered.     It  is  the  coagula- 
tion of  the  casein  by  boiling,  and  the  evaporation  of 
certain  gases,  that  renders  it  indigestible. 

Brandy  Milk  with  Egg 

Beat  one  egg  with  one  tablespoonful  of  sugar;  add 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  brandy  and  a  cup  of  cold  milk. 

Koumyss 

I  qt.  perfectly  fresh  milk. 

i -5th  of  a  2-cent  cake  of  Fleischmann's  yeast. 

i  tablespoonful  of  sugar. 

Dissolve  the  yeast  in  a  little  water ;  mix  it  with  the      Five 
sugar  and  milk.     Put  the  mixture  into  strong  bottles ;      ^qui 
cork  them  with  tightly  fitting  stoppers;  tie  down  se- 
curely with  stout  twine.     Shake  the  bottles  for  a  full 


691 


98  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

minute;  place  them  on  end  in  a  refrigerator;  at  the 
end  of  three  days  lay  them  on  their  sides ;  turn  them 
occasionally.  Five  days  will  be  required  to  perfect 
fermentation.  Kept  in  the  refrigerator  and  well  corked 
koumyss  will  keep  indefinitely. 

Milk  Lemonade 

I  tablespoonful  sugar. 

I  cup  boiling  water. 

34  cup  lemon  juice. 

54  cup  sherry. 

I  ;4  cups  cold  milk. 

Pour  the  boiling1  water  over  the  sugar;  add  the 
lemon  juice  and  sherry.  Stir  it  until  the  sugar  dis- 
solves; add  the  cold  milk;  stir  again  until  the  milk 
curdles ;  strain  through  muslin. 

Milk  Punch 

Sweeten  i  cup  of  milk  with  I  teaspoonful  of  sugar ; 
stir  in  2  tablespoon fuls  of  brandy;  beat  with  egg- 
beater  ;  pour  into  glass  and  grate  nutmeg  over  the  top. 

Milk  Rennet 

Uge  Stir  I  teaspoonful  of  rennet  and  2  teaspoonfuls  of 
Dciina  snerrv  together  with  I  teaspoonful  of  sugar.  Heat  I 
pint  of  milk  until  it  is  exactly  100°  F. ;  pour  into  bowl 
containing  rennet  and  wine;  stir  quickly  and  only 
enough  to  mix  ingredients ;  grate  nutmeg  over  the  top, 
and  set  on  ice  till  solid. 


FOOD  FOR  THE  SICK  99 

Peptonized   Milk 

Mix  5  grains  of  pancreatic  extract  and  15  of  soda 
bicarbonate  with  cold  milk;  warm  a  pint  of  milk  and 
add ;  stir  well  and  put  on  ice  to  cool. 

Barley  Gruel 

Mix  I  tablespoonful  of  Robinson's  barley-flour  with      GrueU 
half  a  teaspoonful  of  sugar;  pour  over  this  a  cup  of 
boiling  water ;  boil  ten  minutes ;  add  a  cup  of  milk ; 
bring  to  boiling  point ;  serve  very  hot. 

Arrowroot  Gruel 

Mix  half  a  tablespoonful  of  arrowroot  with  I  salt- 
cpoonful  of  salt,  half  a  teaspoonful  of  sugar,  wet  with 
2  tablespoonfuls  of  cold  water ;  pour  on  a  cup  of  boil- 
ing water,  stirring  constantly.  Boil  for  twenty  min- 
utes ;  add  the  milk,  and  bring  to  boiling  point ;  strain ; 
serve  immediately.  A  little  port  wine  -is  often  added. 

Oatmeal  Gruel 

Mix  2  tablespoonfuls  of  oatmeal,  half  a  teaspoonful 
of  sugar  and  a  saltspoonful  of  salt.  Pour  this  slowly 
into  boiling  water;  cook  in  a  saucepan  for  thirty 
minutes,  or,  preferably,  in  a  double  boiler  for  two 
hours;  strain;  add  the  milk,  and  bring  to  boiling 
point. 

Cracker  Gruel 

Mix  2  tablespoonfuls  of  cracker  crumbs  with  half  a 
saltspoonful  of  salt  and  half  a  teaspoonful  of  sugar. 
Pour  over  this  a  cup  of  boiling  water,  add  one  cup  of 
milk  and  simmer  for  two  minutes. 


693 


ioo  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

Beef  Tea 

Cut  two  pounds  of  round  steak  into  half-inch 
squares ;  put  into  double  boiler  and  add  one  quart  of 
water ;  let  stand  one  hour,  then  place  over  fire  and  let 
simmer  two  hours ;  flavor  to  taste. 

Chicken  Broth 

Broths  Cut  up  a  fowl  (which  has  been  properly  cleaned) 
into  small  pieces ;  add  a  quart  or  a  quart  and  a  half  of 
cold  water,  according  to  size  of  fowl.  Let  stand  for 
one  hour  and  simmer  for  two  hours,  then  boil  slightly 
for  one.  Strain  it,  remove  fat,  and  flavor  to  taste. 

Mutton  Broth 

Cut  one  pound  of  loin  or  neck  of  mutton  into  small 
pieces;  put  with  one  teaspoonful  of  chopped  onion 
into  one  quart  of  water.  Let  stand  one  hour,  and 
simmer  three ; .  strain ;  let  cool ;  then  remove  the  fat 
whith  rises  to  the  top.  Heat  when  ready  to  serve ; 
season  with  salt  and  white  pepper. 

Flaxseed  Tea 

Drinks  Boil  one  tablespoonful  of  flaxseed  in  a  pint  of  water 
for  one  hour ;  strain ;  add  one  tablespoonful  of  lemon 
juice  and  one  tablespoonful  of  sugar;  serve  either  hot 
or  cold.  The  loss  by  evaporation  should  be  made  good 
from  time  to  time,  so  that  at  the  end  of  the  cooking 
there  shall  be  one  pint  of  tea. 

Coffee 

For  every  cup  of  water  use  a  heaped  tablespoonful 
of  coffee.  Soak  the  coffee  for  several  hours  in  cold 


694 


FOOD  FOR  THE  SICK  101 

water;  bring  to  boiling  point  and  let  simmer  for  a 
few  minutes ;  let  stand  on  the  back  of  the  stove  for  a 
minute  to  settle  before  serving. 

Caudle 

To  a  cupful  of  thin  oatmeal  gruel  add  a  tablespoonful 
of  sherry,  one  egg  well  beaten,  sugar  to  taste ;  it  can 
be  served  either  hot  or  cold. 

Toast  Water 

Toast  till  dry  three  slices  of  bread  an  inch  thick; 
break  into  small  pieces ;  add  a  pint  of  cold  water ;  soak 
for  an  hour;  strain,  and  squeeze  the  water  out  of  the 
toast  with  the  back  of  a  spoon.  Serve  cold ;  if  desired 
a  little  cream  and  sugar  may  be  added. 

Barley  Water 

Boil  one  tablespoonful  of  barley  flour,  a  teaspoonful 
of  sugar,  a  saltspoonful  of  salt  and  a  quart  of  water 
together  for  fifteen  minutes ;  strain ;  it  can  be  flavored 
either  with  lemon  juice  or  port  or  sherry  wine. 

Rice  Water 

This  is  made  in  the  same  manner  as  barley  water, 
except  that  two  tablespoonfuls  of  rice  will  be  required 
to  a  quart  of  water. 

Oyster  Soup 

Heat  a  cup  of  milk;  add  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
cracker  crumbs,  a  saltspoonful  of  salt,  a  sprinkle  of 
pepper,  a  fourth  of  a  teaspoonful  of  butter ;  when  this 
is  warm  through  add  a  cup  of  fresh  oysters  and  juice; 


695 


102  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

allow  to  simmer  for  about  two  minutes,  or  till  the  gills 
of  the  oysters  curl. 

Milk  Toast 

Toast  three  slices  of  bread  a  delicate  brown ;  butter 
them  and  put  them  into  a  covered  dish.  Cover  them 
with  milk  which  has  been  brought  almost  to  boiling 
point. 

Soft  Custard 

Beat  together  the  yolks  of  two  eggs,  a  saltspoonful 
of  salt,  and  two  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar;  add  this 
slowly  to  a  pint  of  milk  which  has  been  brought  to 
boiling  point ;  boil  three  minutes.  Flavor  with  vanilla 
or  sherry  wine;  serve  cold. 

Egg-nogr 

Egg  Break  one  egg  into  a  bowl ;  add  one  saltspoon- 
ful of  salt  and  two  teaspoonfuls  of  sugar ;  beat 
until  light ;  add  one  cup  of  milk,  one  or  two  tablespoon- 
fuls of  good  brandy  or  whisky ;  serve  immediately. 

Sherry  and  Egg 

Break  an  egg  into  a  bowl ;  add  a  teaspoonful  of 
sugar;  beat  the  two  together  until  well  mixed;  add 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  sherry  wine  and  a  fourth  of  a 
cup  of  cold  water ;  mix  thoroughly ;  strain,  and  serve 
immediately. 

Scrambled  Eggs 

Beat  two  eggs,  a  saltspoonful  of  salt,  a  sprinkle  of 
white  pepper,  with  a  Dover  egg-beater,  until  quite 
light ;  add  four  tablespoonfuls  of  sweet  cream  or  milk ; 


696 


FOOD  FOR  THE  SICK  103 

turn  the  mixture  into  a  double  boiler;  cook,  stirring 
constantly  until  the  albumen  is  coagulated. 

Foamy  Omelet 

Separate  the  yolks  from  the  whites  of  two  eggs.  To 
the  yolks  add  a  saltspoonful  of  salt  and  one-fourth  of 
a  saltspoonful  of  pepper.  Beat  with  a  Dover  egg- 
beater  until  light;  add  two  tablespoonfuls  of  milk. 
Beat  the  whites  until  fairly  stiff,  and  fold  them  into 
the  yolk ;  pour  the  mixture  into  a  hot  buttered  omelet 
pan ;  cook  for  about  two  minutes ;  put  into  the  oven  for 
one  minute  to  cook  the  upper  surface. 

Egg  Cream 

Separate  the  yolks  of  two  eggs  from  the  whites ; 
add  two  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar  to  the  yolks;  beat 
until  well  mixed ;  add  the  juice  and  grated  rind  of  half 
a  lemon ;  place  the  bowl  in  a  dish  of  boiling  water  on 
the  fire ;  stir  slowly  until  the  mixture  begins  to  thicken ; 
add  the  beaten  whites  of  eggs,  and  stir  for  two  minutes. 
Serve  cold. 

Poached  Eggs 

Pour  some  boiling  water  into  a  small  saucepan ;  salt 
it  and  add  half  a  teaspoonful  of  vinegar ;  break  a  fresh 
egg  gently  into  this.  As  soon  as  the  white  is  firm  lift 
out  the  egg  with  a  skimmer,  and  put  on  crustless  but- 
tered toast. 

Soft  Cooked  Eggs 

Never  boil  eggs  for  the  sick.  Boil  enough  water  to 
cover  the  eggs ;  put  them  in ;  remove  the  saucepan  to 


697 


io4  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

the  back  of  the  stove  where  the  water  will  not  lose  its 
warmth  too  soon,  and  let  them  stand  ten  minutes. 

Jellies 

Jellies  The  order  for  making  nearly  all  jellies  is  as  follows: 
The  gelatine  is  hydrated,  or  softened,  by  soaking  in  the 
cold  water  for  half  an  hour.  The  boiling  water,  sugar 
and  flavoring  are  then  added,  in  the  given  order. 
Strain  and  cool. 

Lemon  Jelly 

Y^  box  of  gelatine. 

y\  cup  of  cold  water. 

1^4  cups  of  boiling  water. 

^2  cup  of  sugar. 

l/4  cup  of  lemon  juice. 

I  tablespoon ful  of  brandy. 

Orange  Jelly 

*4  box  of  gelatine. 

%  CUP  °f  c°ld  water. 

l/2  cup  of  boiling  water. 

y2  cup  of  sugar. 

i  cup  of  orange  juice. 

Juice  of  half  a  lemon. 

As  soon  as  the  latter  begins  to  stiffen  it  can  be 
whipped  till  stiff,  making  orange  sponge,  which, 
served  with  custard,  makes  a  very  dainty  dish. 

Velvet  Cream 

Soak  y^  box  of  gelatine  in  J4  CUP  of  c°ld  water  for 
half  an  hour ;  then  pour  in  %  cup  of  sherry  wine ;  set 


698 


FOOD  FOR  THE  SICK  105 

the  bowl  in  a  dish  of  boiling  water  over  the  fire.  When 
the  gelatine  is  dissolved  add  a  teaspoonful  of  lemon 
juice  and  y2  a  cup  of  sugar;  strain;  set  the  bowl  in  a 
dish  of  ice  and  water  to  cool.  As  soon  as  it  begins  to 
thicken  turn  in  the  cream.  Stir  this  until  it  also  thick- 
ens; mould  and  put  on  ice.  Serve  with  cream. 

Wine  Jelly 

y\.  box  of  gelatine.  ,    . 

J4  cup  of  cold  water. 

1*4  cups  of  boiling  water. 

y2  cup  of  sugar. 

y>  a  square  inch  cinnamon. 

i  clove. 

y2  cup  of  sherry  wine. 

Coffee  Jelly 

l/4  box  gelatine. 
y\  cup  of  cold  water, 
i  cup  of  boiling  water. 
y2  cup  of  strong  coffee. 
y2  a  teaspoonful  of  vanilla. 
y2  a  cup  of  sugar. 

EMERGENCIES.     FIRST  AID  TO  THE  INJURED 

In  all  emergencies  one  of  the  chief  requisites  is 
coolness.  Do  not  get  excited,  or  you  will  be  perfectly 
useless.  When  the  doctor's  services  are  necessary  send 
him  a  written  statement  of  the  case,  that  he  may  come 
prepared  with  the  proper  appliances.  Severe  injury 


699 


io6  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

of  any  kind  is  apt  to  be  followed  by  that  complete 
prostration  of  the  vital  powers  known  as  "shock." 
Therefore,  after  such,  the  patient  should  be  put  into  a 
warm  bed,  and  hot  water  bags  applied  to  the  feet  and 
over  the  heart. 

Exclude  Scalds  and  Burns.  In  the  treatment  of  scalds  and 
burns  the  first  object  is  to  allay  the  pain  by  excluding 
the  air.  This  is  done  best  by  the  application  of  clean, 
soft,  white  linen  or  cotton  cloths  wrung  out  in  a  solu- 
tion made  by  dissolving  a  tablespooriful  of  bicarbonate 
of  soda  (baking  soda)  in  a  pint  of  boiled  water.  This 
treatment  can  be  continued  for  the  first  few  days; 
afterwards  boric  acid  ointment  spread  on  lint  or  soft 
sterile  cotton  will  be  found  healing.  Do  not  try  to 
treat  a  burn  of  any  extent  without  a  doctor's  advice, 
as  many  complications  are  likely  to  ensue.  In  fact,  in 
such  cases,  it  is  always  best  to  send  for  the  doctor 
immediately,  as  many  people  have  died  from  shock 
after  comparatively  small  burns. 

Frost  Bites.  Rub  with  snow,  or  cloths  wrung  out  in 
ice-water.  The  rubbing  must  be  very  light  at  first,  and 
the  patient  kept  away  from  the  heat. 

Syncope  or  Fainting.  Place  the  head  lower  than  the 
feet  if  possible;  give  plenty  of  fresh  air.  Ammonia 
may  be  given  by  inhalation,  but  it  should  not  be  very 
strong,  as  it  is  irritating  to  the  bronchial  tubes.  If 
these  measures  are  not  successful  treat  as  in  case  of 
shock. 


700 


EMERGENCIES  107 

Shock.  Put  the  patient  into  a  warm  bed;  undress 
and  roll  in  blankets ;  apply  heat  to  the  extremities  and 
over  the  heart;  raise  the  foot  of  the  bed,  so  that  the 
patient's  head  will  be  considerably  lower  than  the  feet. 
If  possible  avoid  giving  stimulation  till  the  doctor 
arrives ;  if,  however,  he  cannot  be  found,  and  the  case 
is  urgent,  give  a  rectal  injection  of  whisky  I  oz., 
water  5  ozs.  (105°  R),  salt  5  grains.  Coffee  may  be 
used  instead  of  water  and  salt. 

Epilepsy.  Loosen  all  clothing;  put  something  be- 
tween the  teeth  to  prevent  the  tongue  being  bitten; 
have  the  head  on  a  level  with  the  feet ;  give  plenty 
of  fresh  air  but  no  stimulants. 

Drowning.  In  cases  of  drowning  where  a  person  is 
apparently  lifeless,  efforts  to  restore  life  should  be 
commenced  at  once  by  loosening  all  tight  clothing 
around  neck,  chest,  and  waist.  Turn  the  patient  over 
quickly  on  his  face,  raising  the  body  slightly  at  the 
waist  to  allow  any  water  in  the  throat  or  air  passages 
to  run  out.  Wrap  a  handkerchief  or  a  towel  around 
the  forefinger  and  gently  cleanse  the  mouth.  All  this 
should  take  only  a  minute  or  two.  Place  the  person 
upon  his  back  with  a  folded  coat  or  a  firm  pad  of  any 
kind  under  his  shoulders  to  raise  them  a  little.  Be 
careful  that  the  tongue  does  not  slip  back  and  shut 
off  the  air  from  the  trachea.  If  it  shows  any  tendency 
to  do  so,  have  some  one  hold  it  out,  or  tie  a  hand- 
kerchief around  it  and  then  around  the  neck. 


701 


io8 


HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 


Artificial 
Respiration 


Now  artificial  respiration  should  be  produced  until 
the  natural  breathing  is  restored.     To  do  this  kneel 


ARTIFICIAL  RESPIRATION  (First  Movement) 

behind  the  patient  and  grasping  his  arms  just  below 
the  elbows,  draw  them  slowly  upward  above  his  head 
until  they  nearly  touch.  Give  a  firm  pull  for  a  mo- 
ment. This  movement  tends  to  fill  the  lungs  with  air 
by  raising  the  ribs  and  increasing  the  chest  cavity. 


ARTIFICIAL,  RESPIRATION  (Second  Movement) 

Then  carry  the  arms  slowly  back  to  the  sides  of  the 
body  and  press  them  against  the  ribs.  This  movement 
forces  out  the  air  which  was  drawn  into  the  lungs  and 
makes  artificially  a  complete  respiration.  These  two 


702 


EMERGENCIES. 


109 


movements  should  be  repeated  slowly  and  steadily 
about  sixteen  times  in  a  minute,  until  respiration  takes 
place  naturally.  This  may  require  an  hour  or  more. 

Asphyxiation,  Caused  by  Gas,  Smoke,  etc.  Remove 
the  patient  into  the  fresh  air,  loosen  the  clothing, 
throw  cold  water  in  the  face,  neck,  and  chest;  apply 
heat  to  the  feet  and  over  the  heart.  If  respiration  is 


EXPELLING  THE  AIR  (Third  Movement) 

shallow,  artificial  respiration  should  be  performed,  and, 
if  necessary,  treat  as  for  shock. 

Contusions,  or  Bruises,  are  best  treated  by  rest  and 
cold  applications. 

Wounds.  When  there  is  a  cut,  the  first  procedure, 
provided  there  is  no  hemorrhage,  is  to  wash  out  the 
wound  well  with  bichloride,  1-5000,  and  bind  it  up 
with  sterile  gauze.  A  wound  will  heal  without  the 
formation  of  pus  if  all  bacteria  are  killed  or  kept  out. 
When  the  cut  is  long,  or  the  ends  of  the  wound  do  not 
come  together  well,  the  doctor  should  be  summoned, 
as  putting  in  a  few  stitches  may  prevent  an  unsightly 


Guarding 
Against 
Blood 
Poisoning 


703 


i  io  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

'  scar.  (Having  bichloride  and  sterile  gauze  always  in 
the  house  would  save  many  a  case  of  blood  poison, 
Toumi  uet  infected  fingers,  etc.)  Collodion  is  useful  in  keeping 
bacteria  out  of  small  cuts  and  in  applying  absorbent 
cotton  over  wounds  in  places  where  bandages  cannot 
be  used. 

Hemorrhage.  Elevate  the  affected  part ;  make  com- 
pression over  the  wound  by  applying  clean  compresses 
and  bandaging  tightly.  If  this  does  not  check  it,  and 
you  do  not  know  the  course  of  the  arteries  well  enough 


Manner  of  compressing  ail  artery  with  a  handkerchief  and  stick. 

to  make  compression  upon  the  required  one,  tie  on  a 
bandage  very  tightly  above  the  wound.  A  pencil  or  a 
piece  of  wood  stuck  under  this,  and  turned  around, 
will  act  as  a  tourniquet.  When  possible,  in  addition 
to  this  it  is  always  better  to  place  a  hard  pad  over  the 
course  of  the  artery.  A  doctor's  aid  must  be  sought 
immediately,  for  if  the  blood  is  shut  off  in  this  manner 
longer  than  an  hour  gangrene  is  likely  to  set  in. 


704 


EMERGENCIES 


in 


Epistaxis  (bleeding  from  the  nose).  Make  the  pa- 
tient stand  or  sit  erect;  throw  the  head  back  and 
elevate  the  arms,  while  you  apply  ice  or  ice-cold  com- 
presses to  the  forehead  and  back  of  neck.  If  the 
bleeding  still  continues  the  nostrils  should  be  syringed 
with  salt  and  water,  ice  cold.  Avoid  blowing  the  nose, 
and  so  disturbing  the  formation  of  clots. 

Hemorrhage  from  the  Lungs.  Keep  the  patient 
quiet,  give  crushed  ice,  and  put  ice-cap  on  chest.  Salt 
solution  made  by  dissolving  a  teaspoonful  of  salt  in  a 
small  cup  of  water  may  also  be  given. 

Sprains  occur  most  frequently  at  the  wrist  and  ankle 
joint.  Soak  the  affected  part  in  hot  water,  or  apply 
hot  compresses.  The  joint  should  then  be  supported 
by  strapping,  and  given  moderate  use.  A  surgeon 
should  do  the  strapping,  for  if  it  is  not  properly  done 
serious  trouble  may  result. 

Fractures.  It  is  a  mistaken  impression  that  a  frac- 
ture must  be  set  immediately.  It  will  do  less  harm 
for  it  to  be  left  a  day  or  two  without  splints  than  for 
them  to  be  applied  awkwardly.  Handle  the  injured 
limb  as  little  as  possible,  and  keep  the  patient  quiet 
until  a  competent  surgeon  can  be  obtained.  Temporary 
splints  made  of  pasteboard,  shingles,  etc.,  may  be 
bound  on  to  prevent  the  spasmodic  twitching  of  the 
muscles;  cold  or  hot  compresses  applied  will  keep 
down  the  swelling  and  relieve  the  pain. 

Dislocations  should  be  reduced  as  soon  as  possible, 
but  only  a  surgeon  can  do  this  properly. 


Cold 
Applications 


Strapping 


Fractures 
Need 

Not  Be   Set 
At  Once 


705 


1 12  HUME  LAKE  <Jb   '1  M h  SI L A 

FOREIGN   BODIES   IN   THE   EYE,    EAR,    NOSE,    THROAT 

The  Eye.  If  anything  gets  under  the  lower  lid,  draw 
the  lid  down  by  the  lashes,  direct  the  patient  to  turn 
the  eyeball  toward  the  nose,  and  the  offending  body 
can  then  be  wiped  out  with  a  soft  handkerchief.  If  it 
is  under  the  upper  lid,  this  can  be  turned  up  over  a 
thin  pencil  or  knitting  needle,  and  treated  in  the  same 
way,  except  that  the  patient  is  directed  to  look  down. 
Always  wipe  the  eye  towards  the  nose.  If  the  particle 
is  imbedded  in  the  surface  of  the  eyeball  a  surgeon 
must  be  notified  immediately ;  do  not  make  any  effort 
to  get  it  out. 

Use  Nothing  Foreign  Body  in  the  Ear.  Unless  the  object  is 
something  that  will  swell  with  moisture,  syringe  gently 
•  with  warm  water,  taking  care  not  to  close  the  opening 
with  the  nozzle  of  the  syringe.  If  this  method  fails  go 
to  a  doctor ;  any  unskilled  effort  to  poke  or  probe  the 
object  out  is  likely  to  result  in  permanent  injury  to 
the  ear. 

The  Nose.  When  a  foreign  body  is  in  the  nostril 
make  the  patient  take  a  full  breath,  then  close  the 
mouth  and  the  other  nostril  firmly — the  air  will  prob- 
ably expel  the  obstruction.  If  this  fails,  and  the  object 
is  in  sight,  compress  the  nostrils  above  and  hook  it 
out  with  a  hairpin  or  piece  of  bent  wire. 

A  Foreign  Body  in  the  Throat  may  be  hooked  out 
in  the  same  way;  if  not,  a  piece  of  bread  should  be 
swallowed ;  this  may  carry  down  the  obstruction.  Do 
not  give  purgative  medicine,  as  is  often  done,  but 


706 


POISONS  AND  ANTIDOTES  113 

rather  plenty  of  solid   food,  especially  potatoes  and 
bread. 

A  Foreign  Body  in  the  Windpipe  will  usually  be 
dislodged  by  the  coughing  which  its  presence  excites ; 
if  not,  a  blow  on  the  back,  or,  in  the  case  of  a  child, 
holding  it  up  by  the  feet  and  administering  a  succes- 
sion of  blows  between  the  shoulders  will  generally 
produce  the  desired  effect. 

POISONS  AND  ANTIDOTES 

The   treatment   has   three  objects   in   view:   to   re-      Give  an 
move  the  poisonous  substance,  neutralize  its   further      ^t^onc 
action,  and  remedy  the  ill  effects  already  produced.     , 
An  emetic  is  the  first  consideration.     A  tablespoonful 
of  salt  or  mustard  stirred  into  a  glass  of  lukewarm 
water  will  usually  prove  effective.    This  dose  should  be 
repeated  three  or  four  times.     An  enema  should  also 
be  given,  the  patient  kept  warm,  and,  as  soon  as  vomit- 
ing ceases,  the  chemical  antidote  given. 

The  following  table  of  the  chemical  antidotes  and 
further  treatment  of  the  most  common  poisons  should 
be  learned  and  remembered. 

Carbolic  Acid.  Lime  water  and  milk,  equal  parts, 
a  pint  to  a  pint  and  a  half.  Atropine  and  heart  stimu- 
lants, such  as  whisky  and  strychnine,  may  be  required, 
given  hypodermically. 

Nitric  or  Oxalic  Acid.  Chalk  or  whiting,  the  plaster 
from  walls,  milk  and  lime  water.  Give  whichever  can 
be  obtained  quickest. 


707 


H4  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

Ammonia.  Vinegar  or  lemon  juice,  followed  by 
castor  or  olive  oil. 

Arsenic.  The  best  antidote  is  tincture  of  iron,  di- 
luted with  v/ater,  and  either  baking  or  washing  soda. 
Lacking  this,  or  till  it  can  be  obtained,  give  milk  and 
white  of  egg,  or  flour  and  water. 

Aconite  or  Belladonna.  Strong,  hot  coffee.  Give 
artificial  respiration  if  necessary. 

Bichloride  of  Mercury  (corrosive  sublimate).  White 
°f  eSS — white  of  two  eggs  to  a  pint  of  water. 

Calomel.     The  same  as  bichloride  of  mercury. 

Opium.  Strong,  hot  coffee.  Keep  the  patient 
awake,  using  artificial  respiration  when  necessary ; 
permanganate  of  potash  and  tannic  acid  are  the  best 
chemical  antidotes,  but  they  can  rarely  be  obtained 
in  a  hurry. 

BANDAGES  AND  BANDAGING. 

Materials  The  materials  most  commonly  used  for  making 
bandages  are  either  unbleached  muslin  or  gauze.  Mus- 
lin bandages  are  best  when  necessary  to  keep  a  splint 
in  place,  or  make  firm  pressure.  Gauzes  are  infinitely 
preferable  when  the  object  is  only  to  keep  a  surgical 
dressing  in  position;  they  adapt  themselves  more 
neatly  to  the  part,  and  are  much  cooler. 

Bandages  should  be  six  to  eight  yards  long;  they 
vary  in  width  from  one  inch  to  four ;  one  inch  for 
finger  bandages,  two  for  hands  and  feet,  two  and  a 


708 


BANDAGING  n$ 

half  to  three  for  head  and  arms,  three  to  four  for  legs, 
spicas,  etc. 

The  three  fundamental  forms  of  bandaging  are :  the 
spiral,  reverse,  and  figure  eight. 

The  figure  eight  principle  is  the  one  most  used,  and      Figure 
is  the  easiest  method  to  learn.     It  is  made  by  turning      Bandage 
the  bandage  round  the  limb  in  the  form  of  the  figure 
8,  each  figure  being  higher  than  the  preceding  one, 
but  overlapping  it  one-third  of  its  width.    A  bandage 
must  lie  smoothly  without  wrinkles,  making  an  even 
but  not  too   severe  pressure.     It  must  not  be  loose 
enough  to  slip,  yet  not  tight  enough  to  be  painful  or 
impede  the  circulation. 

When  finishing  a  bandage  always  put  the  pin  on  the      Finishing 
outer  side  of  a  limb,  and  in  all  cases  where  it  will 
least  interfere  with  the  patient's  comfort.     Safety  pins 
should  always  be  used. 

In  bandaging  a  limb  begin  at  the  extremity,  and 
work  upwards  from  left  to  right.  Hold  the  bandage 
with  the  roll  side  upward. 

To  bandage  a  foot  start  the  free  end  of  the  bandage      Foot 
at  the  instep,  make  a  turn  around  the  base  of  the  toes,       Bandage 
carry  the  bandage  diagonally  over  the  foot,  across  the 
point  of  the  heel,  and  back  from  the  other  side  till  it 
coincides  with  the  first  turn.     Cover  this,  and  carry  a 
second  turn  around  the  heel,  half  an  inch  higher  th'an 
the  first.     Continue  making  alternate  turns  under  the 
sole  and  behind  the  heel,  crossing  over  the  instep,  until 
the  foot  is  covered.    Finish  with  a  couple  of  circular 


709 


Leg 
Bandage 


ii6  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

• 

turns  around  the  ankle,  or,  if  desired,  continue  up  the 
leg. 

The  beginning  of  the  leg  bandage  is  placed  obliquely 
across  the  leg  above  the  ankle ;  a  circular  turn  keeps 
it  in  place;  then  the  bandage  is  inclined  up  the  leg, 
and  a  turn  taken  around  it.  It  is  then  brought  down- 
ward, and  another  turn  taken  around  the  ankle.  Sue- 


si  a 


FIGURE  8  OF  THE  FOOT. 

cessive  turns  are  to  be  made,  each  one  higher  than 
the  preceding,  till  the  entire  limb  is  covered. 

To  bandage  a  hand  begin  at  the  top  of  the  first 
finger  and  cover  it  by  a  succession  of  oblique  circular 
turns,  or  figures  of  eight,  to  its  base.  Then  make  a 
turn  around  the  wrist  to  keep  these  from  slipping,  and 
return  to  the  root  of  the  second  finger.  Lead  the 


710 


BANDAGING 


117 


bandage  by  one  or  two  spirals  to  the  top  of  this,  then 
proceed  down  it,  as  upon  the  first  finger,  concluding 
with  another  turn  upon  the  wrist.  Cover  each  finger 
successively  in  the  same  way ;  then  take  a  wider 
bandage,  start  at  the  back  of  the 
hand  and  wind  it  around  the  base 
of  the  fingers,  carry  it  obliquely 
across  the  back  of  the  hand  around 
the  wrist,  back  to  the  further  side, 
and  again  around  the  palm.  Con- 
tinue these  turns  alternately  till  the 
hand  is  covered.  The  arm  is  ban- 
daged in  the  same  manner  as  the 

leg. 

When  it  is  only  necessary  to  cover 
the  forehead  or  back  of  the  head  the 
figure-of-eight  is  all  that  is  required.  Figure  8  of  the  Leg 
Start  the  bandage  over  the  ear,  carry  it  across  the 
eyebrows  and  around  the  back  of  the  head  as  high  as 
possible.  Continue  to  wind  it  round  thus,  making 


FIGURE  8  OF  THE  ARM. 

each  turn  a  little  higher  in  the  front,  and  lower  in  the 
back,  until  you  have  covered  as  much  surface  as 
required.  When  the  whole  head  needs  covering 
the  capeline  is  better.  This  is  put  on  by  a 


The 
Capeline 


711 


ii8  HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

double  roller  (join  two  bandages  by  rolling).  Stand 
behind  the  patient,  and,  taking  one  roll  in  each  hand, 
begin  low  on  the  forehead  and  carry  them  round  the 
head,  far  down  on  the  nape  of  the  neck ;  then  transfer 
the  bandage  in  the  left  hand  to  the  one  in  the  right, 
and  continue  it  round,  while  the  other  is  folded  over 
at  right  angles  with  it,  and  brought  across  the  top  of 
the  head  to  the  front.  Here  it  meets  the  other  and 
crosses  it  again,  running  backward  and  overlapping 
the  former  folds.  These  turns  are  continued  until  the 


Bandage  of  the  Hand 

whole  head  is  covered,  one  bandage  going  round  and 
round  it,  and  the  other  going  back  and  forth  across 
it ;  all  the  folds  leading  from  the  front  of  the  head  to 
the  back  should  be  on  the  left  of  the  middle,  while 
those  leading  toward  the  front  should  be  on  the  right. 
Finish  with  a  circular  turn  around  the  head;  fasten 
with  a  safety  pin  in  front. 

The  tailed  bandages  are  often  found  very  convenient, 
especially  for  keeping  poultices  and  the  like  in  posi- 
tion. 

The  four  tailed  bandage  of  the  head  is  made  from 
a  piece  of  muslin  eight  inches  wide  and  long  enough 


712 


BANDAGING  119 

to  go  over  the  scalp  and  tie  under  the  chin.  It  is  torn 
from  each  extremity  to  within  three  or  four  inches 
of  the  middle.  The  body  of  the  bandage  is  placed  on 


FIGURE  8  OF  THE  HEAD 

the  top  of  the  head,  the  two  posterior  tails  tied  under 
the  chin,  and  the  two  anterior  ones  around  the  back  of 


THE  CAPELINE 

the  neck.  If  it  is  desired  to  cover  the  front  of  the 
head  the  body  of  the  bandage  is  placed  at  this  point, 
the  two  anterior  tails  are  fastened  at  the  back  of  the 
head,  and  the  two  posterior  ones  down  under  the  jaw» 


713. 


120 


HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 


A  four  tailed  bandage  for  the  knee  is  made  by 
splitting  a  strip  of  muslin  at  each  end,  to  within  two 
or  three  inches  of  the  center.  Place  the  body  of  the 


FOUR-TAILED  BANDAGE  OF  THE  HEAD 

bandage  over  the  knee,  carry  the  tails  under  the  knee, 
cross  them  so  that  the  lower  ^ones  will  come  above  the 
joint,  and  the  upper  ones  below;  bring 
them  around,  and  tie  in  front, 
unitetm  A  scultetus,  or  many  tailed,  is  used 

on  the  abdomen,  to  obtain  pressure,  to 
keep  a  surgical  dressing  or  poultice  in 
place,  etc.  To  make  it  take  four  or  five 
strips  three  inches  wide  and  a  yard  and 
a  quarter  to  a  yard  and  a  half  long,  sew 
them  together  in  the  center  for  a  quar- 
ter of  a  yard,  each  one  overlapping  the 
other  by  two-thirds  of  its  width.  To 
apply,  pass  the  bandage  under  the  pa- 
tient, so  that  the  sewed  part  is  under 
her  back;  fold  the  strips  alternately 

:   Four  Tailed  Band 

over  the  abdomen/ from  below  upward,    age  of  the  Knee 


714 


BANDAGING 


121 


To  make  a  sling  take  a  square  yard  of  muslin  and 
cut  it  across  diagonally ;  this  makes  two  slings.  When 
the  fore-arm  is  injured  its  whole  extent  should  be 
supported  equally.  Put  it  in  the  center  of  the  sling; 
carry  its  outer  end  around  the  neck  on  the  side  of  the 
injured  arm,  and  the  end  between  the  arm  and  the 


Slings 


SLINGS  FOR  LOWER  AND  UPPER  ARMS 

chest  around  the  other  side,  tying  them  at  the  back. 
The  third  end  is  brought  around  the  elbow  and  fas- 
tened in  front. 

If  the  injury  is  of  the  upper  arm  the  sling  should 
support  the  wrist  only,  making  no  pressure  on  the 
elbow.  Turn  the  hand  palm  inward,  fold  the  apex 
of  the  bandage  in  place,  the  arm  just  above  the  wrist 
in  the  center  of  the  sling,  cross  the  ends  and  tie  them 
around  the  neck. 

The  student  should  practice  the  various  bandages 
and  slings  described  on  some  member  of  the  family 
or  a  friend.  Some  little  experience  is  required  before 
they  can  be  applied  securely  and  neatly.  The  illustra- 
tions will  help  to  make  the  matter  clear. 


715 


HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

PART    II 


Read  Carefully*  Place  your  name  and  address  on  the 
first  sheet  of  the  test.  Use  a  light  grade  of  paper  and  write 
on  one  side  of  the  sheet  only.  Do  not  copy  answers  from 
the  lesson  paper.  Use  your  own  words,  so  that  your  in- 
structor may  know  that  you  understand  the  subject.  Carry 
out  the  directions  given  in  the  text,  if  possible,  before 
answering  the  questions. 


1.  How  are  infectious  and  contagious  diseases  alike? 

How  do  they  differ?    Name  some  of  each. 

2.  What  precautionary   measures   should  be   taken 

with  typhoid  fever?     With  consumption? 

3.  What  are  the  rules  when  isolation  is  necessary? 

4.  What  precautionary   measures   should  be   taken 

by  the  attendant. while  nursing  in  a  contagious 
disease? 

5.  How   disinfect    (a)    the  patient,    (b)    the   room, 

(c)    the   furnishings   at   the   termination   of  a 
contagious  disease? 

6.  Why  are  the  many  precautions  taken  in  surgical 

operations  and  in  childbirth? 

7.  What  can  you  say  of  diet  for  the  sick?     Why 

should  special  care  be  taken  in  serving? 

8.  What  should  the  medicine  closet  contain  in  prepa- 

ration for  emergencies  and  accidents? 

9.  How  would  you  treat  a  scald  or  burn?     Frost 

bite?    A  wound? 

10.     What  is  shock  arid  how  should  this  condition  be 
treated? 


716 


HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SICK 

11.  Why  should  written   directions  be   sent  to  the 

doctor  in  accidents? 

12.  What  would  you  do  for  a  sprain?     Fractures? 

In  case  of  hemorrhage  from  an  arm  or  leg? 

13.  What  should  be  done  at  once  for  one  who  has 

fainted?  One  apparently  drowned?  Asphyxi- 
ated? 

14.  Give  the  rules  of  hygiene  in  pregnancy. 

15.  Name  some  of  the  things  to  be  provided  for  child- 

birth.    How  should  the  room  be  prepared? 

1 6.  Describe  the  stages  of  labor. 

17.  What  should  be  done  if  the  doctor  does  not  ar- 

rive in  time? 

1 8.  How  should  the  child  be  cared  for  directly  after 

birth? 

19.  How  would  you  remove  a  foreign  body  from  the 

eye?    Ear?    Nose?    Throat? 

20.  In  case  of  poisoning,  what  objects  has  the  treat- 

ment in  view  ? 

21.  What  would  you  do  for  carbolic  acid  poisoning? 

Bichloride  of  mercury?    Arsenic?     Opium? 

22.  Of  what  material  are    bandages    made?     How 

should  they  be  applied  and  fastened? 

23.  Bandage  a  foot  as  shown  in  the  illustration  and 

then  describe  the  process. 

24.  Try  some  of  the  other  bandages  described  and 

report. 

25.  Make  and  adjust  a  sling  for  the  forearm.    When 

should  it  be  used  ? 

26.  What  questions  would  you  like  to  ask  in  connec- 

tion with  these  lessons  ?  Tell  of  any  experience 
that  you  may  have  had  in  nursing  and  of  meth- 
ods that  were  helpful. 

NOTE.— After  completing  the  test  sign  your  full  name. 


717 


SUPPLEMENTAL    PROGRAM    ARRANGED    FOR    CLASS 
STUDY     ON 

HOME    CARE    FOR    THE    SICK 


MEETING  I 

(Study  pages  1-13) 
Symptoms  of  Disease 

See  Care  of  Children,  pages  153-159,  for  children's  dis- 
eases. (Vol.  XI  of  the  Library  of  Home  Economics.) 
The  Sick-Room. 

See  Household  Hygiene,  Ventilation  and  Heating, 
Home  Nursing,  Harrison,  pages  1-13.  ($1.00,  post- 
age IOC.) 

MEETING  II 

(Study  pages  13-34) 
Care  of  the  Patient 

Make  bed  with  draw-sheet,  as  described  in  the  text. 

Change  the  bed  as  described. 

Lift  patient  to  sitting  position. 

Make  back  rest  and  foot  brace. 

Change  patient  from  one  bed  to  another,  tv/o  methods. 

Change  mattress  with  patient  in  bed. 

Make  a  wadding  ring  to  relieve  pressure. 

If  possible,  get  a  trained  nurse  to  show  how  these  things 

are  done. 
Convalescence 

Lift  patient  into  a  chair. 

Topic — Amusing  the  convalescent   and  sick  children. 

MEETING  III 

(Study  pages  34-62.) 
Baths  and  Bathing 

Make  up  pitcher  of  water,  cool,  tepid,  warm,  etc.,   of 
the  various  degrees  of  temperature  given  on  page  41. 
183 


718 


HOME    CARE    OF    THE   SICK 

Test  with  a  bath  or  other  thermometer  and  with  the 
hand.  Note  how  unreliable  the  hand  may  be;  after 
the  hand  has  been  in  the  cold  water,  the  tepid  water 
feels  warm,  and  after  having  been  in  the  hot  water, 
the  tepid  water  feels  cold. 

Home  Nursing,  Harrison,  pages  63-73.  ($*-°°,  post- 
age IOC, 

Practical  Points  in  Nursing,  Emily  Stoney,  pages  83-93 

($1.75,  postage  2oc.) 
Temperature,  Pulse,  Giving  Medicine,  etc. 

Obtain  a  clinical  thermometer  and  take  temperature  a 
number  of  times,  having  all  read  the  thermometer 
to  i- 1 oof  a  degree,  and  write  the  reading  on  slips  of 
paper.  Compare  results.  If  there  is  any  difficulty 
in  shaking  down  the  mercury,  get  a  physician  or 
nurse  to  show  how  it  is  done.  A  clinical  thermometer 
may  be  purchased  through  the  School  for  $1.25, 
or  will  be  loaned  for  ice. 

Count  the  pulse  in  quarters  for  a  second,  as  described, 
and  compare  results  as  in  the  taking  of  temperature. 

Count  the  respiration,  as  directed. 

Have  an  exhibit  of  medicine  glasses,  feeding  cups, 
syringes,  ice-caps. 

Make  poultices,  sinapisms,  flannel  for  fomentations, 
compresses. 

(Select  answers  to  the  Test  Questions  on  Part  I  and  send 
to  the  School.  Report  on  Meetings  I,  II,  and  III.) 

MEETING  IV 

(Study  pages  63-73) 
Contagious  Diseases:     Disinfection 

See  article  in  the  supplement,  also  send  for  and  read 
some  of  the  following  Bulletins  issued  by  State 
Boards  of  Health: 


719 


PROGRAM  185 

Lansing,  Michigan,  "Dangerous  Communicable  Dis- 
eases. " 

Concord,   New  Hampshire,    "Consumption.'' 
Springfield,    Illinois,    "Consumption''    also    "Practical 

Disinfection.' ' 

Augusta,   Maine,   "Contagious  Diseases/' 
Trenton,    New  Jersey,    "Restriction   of   the  Spread   of 

Infectious  Diseases." 

These  Bulletins  are  sent  free,  or  for  a  2C  stamp.  Send 
to  your  own  State  Board  of  Health,  if  not  included 
in  the  above;  to  your  capital  city,  for  any  Bulletins. 

MEETING  V 

(Study  pages  73-105) 
Surgical  Work:  Obstetrics 

Practical  Points  in  Nursing,  Stoney,  ($1.75,  postage  2oc.) 
Food  for  the  Sick 

Food  and  Cookery  for  the  Sick  and  Convalescent. 
($1.50,  postage  i8c.) 

Food  for  the  Sick,  French,  ($1.00,  postage  roc.) 

Hand  Book  of  Invalid  Cookery,  Boland,  ($2.00,  post- 
age i6c. 

Collect  appropriate  recipes  in  addition  to  those  given 
•  in  the  text. 

Show  dainty  and  suitable  serving  for  the  sick. 

MEETING  VI 

(Study  pages  105-121) 
Emergencies 

Practice  artificial  respiration,  as  described. 
Make  a  tourniquet. 
Bandaging  and  Bandages 

Practice   all  the  bandages  described.     If  possible,  get 

a  trained  nurse  to  show  methods. 

(Select  answers  to  the  Test  Questions  on  Part  II  and 
report  on  Meetings  IV,  V,  and  VI.) 


720 


HOME  CARE  OF  THE  SlCK 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Food  and   Cookery  for  the   Sick  and   Convalescent    ($1.50). 

Fannie  M.  Farmer. 

Food  for  the  Sick  ($1.00).    Edward  C.  French. 
Home  Nursing  ($1.00).    Eveleen  Harrison. 
Nursing  ($2.00).     Isabel  A.  Hampton. 

Practical  Normal  Histology  ($1.25).     T.  Mitchell  Prudden. 
Practical  Points  in  Nursing  ($1.75).     Emily  A.  N.  Stoney. 
Text  Book  of  Nursing  ($1.75).     Clara  Week  Shaw. 

MAGAZINES 

The  American  Journal  of  Nursing. 
The  Trained  Nurse. 

Note. — For  the  convenience   of  students  the   School   will   purchase  and 
forward  any  of  the  above  books  on  receipt  of  the  price  given. 


72  r 


INDEX  TO 
THE  PROFESSION  OF  HOME  MAKING 

HOME-STUDY  COURSE 

As  this  Course  or  book  is  made  up  of  four  different 
books,  the  pages  are  re-numbered  at  the  foot  of  the  page's 
to  provide  a  complete  index.  In  using  this  index  refer 
only  to  the  numbers  at  the  bottom  of  the  pages. 

Emergencies,  accidents,  poisons  and  antidotes,  etc.,  are 
printed  in  black-faced  type  as  an  aid  to  "quick  reference." 


Absorbents  of  grease,  88 
Accidents,    699 
Account,  bank,   460 

overdrawing,    464 
Accounts,    442-571 

balancing,    450 

card    systems,    446 

credit,     448 

envelope    method,    444 

itemized,   447 

systems,    444 

table    of,    450 

weekly,    450 
Acetylene  gas.   115 

generators,   116 
Acid— definition  of,   68 

test  for,   68,   132 
Aconite,    poisoning,   708 
Adaptability,   447 
Adaptation   to   conditions,    411 
Adulterations,   562 
Advance  purchasing.   503 
Advantages   of   domestic   service,    481 

of  owning   home,   422 
Air,  22.   167 

as  food.   38 

composition  of,  24,  30 

pressure,  23 

properties  of,  22 


Air  cushion— rubber,  621 
Airing   the  sick  room.   604 
Aitch  bone,  use  of,  539 
Albumin,  54 
Alcohol  as  fuel,   328 
Alkali,    68,    83,    133 
Alkali,   effect  on  paint,  98 
Alkali  metals,   70 
Alladin  oven,   188 
Allowance  for  higher  life,  437 

personal,  468 
Alum.  136 
Ammonia,   70,   136 

poisoning,  708 

use  of,   83,   126 
Amusing  patient,  623 
Aniline,   114 

Animal     food,     comparative    composi- 
tion of,  248 

Animal   productions,   557 
Anthracite   coal.   25 
Antidote   for  poisons,    707 
Apartment    life,    493 
Argon,  20 

Arsenic  poisoning,  708 
Artificial  breathing,  702 

skin,   619 

Ashes — removing,   605 
Asphyxiation,   703 
Atmosphere,   20-22 
Atmospheric    pressure,    23,    154 


Note. — For  page  numbers,  see  foot  of  pages. 


723 


INDEX 


Atoms,  128 
Au  gratia,   308 


Baby,   care  of.  685 
Back  rests,   614 
Bacon,  550 
Baked  beans.   397 
Baking  bread,   290 

powder   mixing,   294 

powder — strength   of,    290 
Baking,   definition  of.   368 
Baking   powder.    65.    123,   156,    175 

chemistry   of,    105 
Balance  sheet,   451 
Bananas,   369 
Bandages,  708-715 

Capeline,   711 

foot,   709 

forehead,   711 

fore  tailed,    712 

leg,  712 

materials   for,    708 

of  the  hand.   712 
Bandaging,   708 

kinds  of,    709 
Bank   account,   460 

account-bookkeeping,    467 

aid  to  house  wife.   465 
Bargains — legitimate,   499 
Basting,    191 
Baths.   626 

cleansing,   626 

foot,  627 

hot,  629 

salt,  632 

temperature  for,  633 

to  reduce   temperature,   628 
Bath   thermometer,   629 
Batteries,   123 
Bavarian  cream,  380 
Beans,   269,    369 
Beating  eggs,   246 
Bed  linen,   518 

room    furnishings — cost   of,    51' 
Bed   sores,    617 

care  of,    620 
Bed.    the,   601 

changing,    608 

height  of,   601 

making,   607 

size  of,   601 
Beef,   369 
Beef,   corned,   542 

fore   quarter,    534 

heart,  542 

hind  quarter,  537 

quality  of.   529 

ribs  of,   535 

steak   cuts  of,   538 

table  of  cuts  of.   543 
Beef  braising.   394 
Belladonna — poisoning,   708 
Bibliography,  1Q3,  322,   563 


— For  page  Cumbers,  tee  foot  of  pages 


Bichloride    of    mercury    disinfectant, 

658 

poisoning,   708 

Biscuits,    288.   387  » 

Bituminous  coal.   33 
Blanc   Mange,   379 
Bleaching,   94 
powder,  94 

Bleeding  or  hemorrhage,  704 
Blood  poisoning,  703 
Blue    flame   oil   stove,    35 
Blueing,   145 
clothes,  81 
Blueing   stains,   86 
Bob  veal,    546 
Boiler,    double.   201 
Boiling,   190.   202,   368 
Boiling   clothes.    81 

point.    19.    166 
Bone  black,  32 
Bones — nutriment   in,   254 
Books,    for    reference   on    Home   Mak- 
ing,   163.    322.    563 
Borax,   75,  83,   133 

use  of,   83 

Boston  baked  beans,   397 
Boston  brown  bread    388 
Bouillon,   377 
Braising.   200.   368 
Bran   treatment,   628 
Bread,  283,  391 
Boston  brown,  388 
baking  of,  290 
digestibility   of,    50 
double  process,   286 
fancy,  289 
flavoring  of,  49 
ideal,    47 
kinds   of,    46 
left  overs.   310 
making,    48.   155 
mixing.   281 
short  process,   28G 
Breakfast.   320 

foods,   277,   396 
Breathing,    artificial,   702 
Brisket,   use  of,  537 
Broiling,   190 
Broiling,    definition,    368 
Broken  bones,  705 
Broth,   58 
Brown  sauce,  227 
Brushing  woolens,   S3 
Brussels  carpet,  522 
Budgets— ideal,    419 

typical,  417 
Building,   cost  of.  455 
Bulletins,  by  U.  S.  Government,  free, 

164.   322.   563 
Burns,  700 
Business,  principles  in  home  making, 

408 
side  of  home  making,  504 


INDEX 


Butter,   224,   369,   559 

composition  of,   226 

for   flavoring,    225 

precautions  in  use,  228 

rancid,  229 
Buying,   295 

quantities,  499,   561 

supplies,   499,   524 
C 

Caffeiu,   55 
Cake.   297,   345 

coffee,   391 

flavoring  of,   299 

ingredients  of,   299 

making,  345 

proportions   in,    300 

sponge,   242,    385 

sweetening  of,  300 
Calomel  poisoning,  708 
Candle  flame,  chemistry  of,  108 
Cane  sugar,   40 
Canned  foods,  21 1 
Canning   foods,   217 
Caramel,  398 
Carbohydrates,    38,    217 
Carbolic   acid   disinfectant,   658 
Carbolic   acid   poisoning,   707 
Carbon.   25 

dioxide  of,  26,  168 

monoxide  of,   29 
Carbonates,  test  for,   135 
Card   index   system.    -452 
Cure  of  bed  sores.   617 
Care  ot  nurse,  6<i5 

of   patient,   605 

of  sick   room.   601 
Carpets,    brussels,    522 

grades  of,   522 

ingfain,   522 

re-made.   524 

tapestry.   522 

Carrots,    composition   of,    369 
Carving.    532 
Casein,    54,    57 
Catheterization,   649 
Caustic  potash.   70 
Caustic  soda.   70 
Cell,   dry,   124 

leclanche.    122 

voltaic,   121 
Cells  in   series.   123 
Cellulose,   39.  42,  263 

where  found,  369 
Cement.  120 

hydraulic,   120 

Portland.   120 
Cereals,  cooking.   276,   396 
Chafing   dish.   1SS 

Changing    mattress,    patient    in    bed, 
617 

patient,  one  bed  to  another,  615 

position  of  patient,  614 
Charcoal,   31,   ISO 


Charcoaly^naking  of,  31 

use  yf\   32 

Chair*    kitchen.   515 
Chart,  composition  of  food,  435 

division  of  income,  420 

economy   of   food,    435 
Cheap  cuts  of   beef,   541 
Checks,   462 
Cheese,    220,    229,    369 

composition  of.   229 

nutritive   value  of.   229 
Chemicals,   care  of,   132 

closet   for,    134 

household,    131 

signs,   128 

terms,   127 
Chemistry  of  a  match.  29 

of  baking   powder,    105 

of   bread   making,    48 

laundry,    78 

of  candle.   108 

of    cooking,    370 
Chicken,    roasting,   262 
Chickenpox,   595 
Chill,   cause  of.   27 
Chloride  of  lime,  95 

test  for,   136 
Chloride,    action   of,   95 
Chlorophyl,    125 
Choice   of   sick   room.   601 
Cholera    infantum,    697 
Chops.   393 
Chowders,   307 
Chuck,   use   <>f,   535 
Classification  of  expenses,   458 

value  of.   413 
Cleaning.   67,   102,    111 

metal.   99 

porcelain.   lOn 

with   gasoline,   146 

woodwork,   98 
Clothing,    cost   of,    430 
Coal.   32.   327 

anthracite,   33 

nituminous,  33 

distillation  of.    113 

fuel    value   of   36,    325 

gas,   113.    130 

tar  products,   114 
Coffee,   making,   202,  376 
Coke.   33 
Coking  coal,   33 
Cold  storage,  204 
Colic,   treatment  for,    596 
Collagen,    55 
Collodion,    619 
Color  of  beef.   530 
(Ombustion,   28,   37 

in  body.   38 

spontaneous.    160 
Comparison,    testing    by,    131 
Composition  of  air,  24,  30,   176 

of  butter,    226 

of  cheese,    229 


Note. — For  page  numbers,  sec  foot  of  pages. 


725 


INDEX 


Composition  of  fats,  52 
of  foods,    table,    369 
of  gas,    158 
of  grains,   274 
of  milk,    219 
of  soap,    71 
of  sugar,   40 
of  water,  16 
Compounds,    14 
chemical,  69 
washing,  73,   137,  173 
Compresses,    654 
Condiments,  313 

Conservation  of  energy,    126     160 
of  matter,   31 
principle   of,    126 
Constants  in  food,  317 
Consumption,    659 

definition    of,    401 
Contagion,  657 

Contagious   diseases,    594     661 
Convalescence,    621 

diet  in,  621 
Convulsions,   597 
Cook   books,    use  of.   340 
Cookery,    art  of,   215'.   315,   343 

fancy.   304 
Cookies,    301,    389 
Cooking,   cereals.  45,  276 
co-operative.    330 
effects  of,  59,   189 
fats,  51 
in  milk,   222 

in  water,    methods  of,    196 
object  of,   59 
soda,  105 

temperature    in,   199,    370     372 
vegetables,    27O 
with  water,   199 
Cooking,   free-hand.  367 
Co  operative   cooking.   336 
Corned  beef.   542 
Corn  cake,   388 
Corn   meal.   369,   396 


of  building.  425 

of  food,   241.   318,  431,   577 

of  living,  417.  571 
Cottage  pudding.  301 
Cotton  cloth,  brands  of,  518 

cloth,    price    of.    519 

nbres.   structure  of    78 

2s;  **•  37 


Cream  of  tartar.   107 
Cream  puffs.   245,   385 
Croquettes.   308 
Croup,    598 

false,    598 

membraneous,    598 
Croutons,   392 
Crystals,    shape   of,    14 

water   in,   165 


Crumbs,    392 
Custards,    380 
Cuts,    of   beef,    533 

of  beef   steak,   538 

of  mutton.   549 

of  pork,   550 

of  roast  beef    5^7 

of  veal,   547 
Cutting  up  beef,  533 


Daily   outline,   488 
Damask,   520 
Decay,   62 

cause   of,    62 
Department  stores,  505 


Diet    in   convalescence     621 

special,  691 
Differing   opinions,    569 


of  proteids,    59 
of  starch,   43,    170 
of  vegetables.   268 


Note.~For  page  numbers,  see  foot  of  pages. 


15 


288 


11^  5n 

Diphtheria,    596 

cause  of,   596 
Disadvantages  of   buying  home     4*2 

of  domestic  service    4S2 
Diseases,    children's     596 

contagious,    594     ' 

not  contagious,  596 
Dishes,  names  of,  307 
Dishwashing.  76,  149  194 

machines,    77 
Disinfectants,  657.  661 
Disinfection,    63.    65.    07     657     659 

of'  SSS^'fe"  •"«•'•  *»* 

of  dishes.   662 
of  patient.   664 
of  room.    665 
personal.   666 
special    rules   for,    663 
Dislocations,   705 
Distillation.    10.   113 
destructive,  33,   157 
factional.    157 
Distilled    water.    10 
Division  of  income,   415    517 

of  labor.   477 
Doctor,  province  of.  593 
Domestic   service,   479    498 
advantages  of,   481 
cost   of.    428 
disadvantages   of     482 
notes    on.    582 
objections   to,   484 


726 


INDEX 


Domestic  problem,  solution  of,  496 
Double    process — bread,   286 
Douches,   648 
Doughnuts,    301,   390 
Doughs,  281,  386. 

manner  of  mixing,   1^9,   ^si 

quick,    386 

yeast.    390 
Draw  sheets,    607 

changing,    608,    611 
Dress.   437 

Dressing,     mayonnaise,     400 
Dried  ,  foods,   209 
Drip  coffee,  202.   376 
Drop   cakes,    387 
Dropped   egg,    238 
Drowning,  701 
Dry  steaming,   368 
Dumplings.  387 
Dusting,  603 


Ear,  foreign  bodies  in,  706 
Economic   position   of   women,    403 
Economics,   divisions   in,    401 
Economy,    aims  of.    40^ 

of  food,    435,    577 

true,  409,  57i 

"> 


<00,1S,    240 

effect  of  heat  on,   236 

in  doughs.   243 

poached,   238 

preserving,   239,    560 

temperature    for    cooking,    237 

testing,   560 

timbals,  381 

value  of.   239 

with    cheese,    241 

with  starch,  238 

with  white  sauce,   .  241 
Electric  batteries,    123,   176 
Electricity,  121 
Elements,    chemical,   30 

table  of.    128 
Emergencies,   699  • 
Employment  agencies,  4V 
Emulsions,   71 
Enema,   cleansing,   b4b 

soap,  647 
Enemata.    nutritive,  644 

EnceonseVvatIon   of,   126,    160 
source  of.  53 

EnvSpe  Method    of   accounts,    444 
IpfstS  7(i«e  bleed),   705 

EstlbJished  fandards   of   work     491 
Estimate   of    kitchen   utensils,   508 
Estimation  of  values,  40b 


Evaporation,    198 
Expenditure    for   clothing,    430 
classification    of,    414 
division  of  household,    421 
home,   409 
legitimate,  423 
record  of,   414 
Expense  of  help  by  hour,  492 

operating,    426 
Experience   of   students   with   servant 

problem.    584 

Experiments  with  acids,  172 
alkalis,   172 
alum,  13 

baking  powder,  291 
bluing,   174 
bones.   61 

breakfast  food.   364 
butter,   226 
dishwashing,    77 
eggs.   237 
flame,  109 
gluten,    57 
hard  water,  173 
iron  rust.  175 
jelly,  196 

manufacturing   water,    167 
meat,   58 
potato,   264 
pressure   of   air,    168 
salts,   172 
soap,  173 
soda.    107.    290 
starch,   170 

taking   temperature,   719 
water,   1O.  197.  198,  718 
Experiments,    value   of,    129 
Explosions,   cause  of,  110 
Explosive  mixtures,  110 
Extractives,  55 
Extravagance,    418 
Eves,  care  of,  667 
Eyes,   foreign  bodies  in,   706 

Fainting,  700 

Fancy    cooking.    304 

Fats,    51,   69,    217,   253,   369 

composition  of,  52 

cooking  of,    51 

digestion  of,   51 

heat   from,   53 

to  clarify,  393 

use   of,   356 
Ferments,    44 
Fertilizers,   125 
Fever,    scarlet,    596 

typhoid,  597 
Fibres,   78 

chemical  action  on,  7w 

cotton,    78 

linen,   78 

silk,  79 

structure  of,  77 

wool,  78 


Note.— For  page  numbers,  see  -foot  of  pages. 


727 


INDEX 


Fillet  of  beef,  538 
Filling.    392 
Filtering.   15 


famil;r-    46S 


Freezing,    21 

latent   heat  of.   21 
French  dressing,  400 


Fire   tests   for   kerosene,    36 
Fireless  cookers.   .330 

home   made.   336 
First  aid  to  injured,  699 
Fish  balls,   395 
baking,   554 
boiling.    554 
kinds  of.   553 
local  varieties  of,   554 
loaf,    395 

methods  of  cooking,  257 
proper   appearance   of,    257 
sauces   with.   258 
scalloped,   395 
season  of,   553 
selecting.   553 
shell,   555 
Flank,   use  of,   540 
Flash    point,    36 
Flavor,    61,    312,    375 

blended,    314 

Flavoring   material.   313.   314 
Floor  of  sick   room.   603 
Flour,    kinds  of.   284 
Flowers  in  sick  room,  601 
Fomentation.   G53 
Fondant.   399 
Food.    430-37 

aesthetic  demands  for    433 
air  as,   38 
canned,   211 
choice  of,   215 
classification   of,   216 
cost  per  person,  316,  431 
dried.    209 
economy,   577 
for   the   sick.   687 
highly  seasoned,  622 
nitrogenous.    53 
preserving.  208 
proper,    430 
starchy.   369 
time  of  cooking,   372 
uncooked.   208 
use  of,   37 

varied  with   seasons    353 
variety  of.   304 
waste  of  money  in,  431 
Foot  brace.   614 
Forequarter  of  beef.   534 
Foreign   bodies,   in  ear,   706 
m  eye,  706 
in  nose,   706 
in  throat,   706 
m  windpipe,  707 


259, 


Fractures,  705 

Free  hand  cooking,  367 


Note.-For  page  numbers,  sec  foot  of  pages. 


Frost  ings.    39$) 
Fruits,   208-39 

conciliations,    309 

dried,    how   to   cook,    377 

food  value  of,   39 

stains,   89 
Frying,    254,   368 
Fuel,   179 

comparative  value   of,    325 

comparison  of.   36 

cost  of,    36.    326 

for  sick  room,  605 

value,   36 
Furnishings,   kitchen,  337 

sick    room,    601 


Garnish,   310 
Gas,    113,    184,   327 
asphyxiation,   703 
acetylene,    115 
burners,    184 
coal,   113 

composition    of.    158 
from   candle.   108 
gasoline,    117 
meter.    1S6 
natural,   115 
stoves,    1S5 
water,   114 
Gasoline,    cleaning   with,    35,    146 

stoves,   1S7 
Gelatine,    310,   380 

jellv.    196 
Gelatinoids,   54 
Gems,   388 

German    measles.    595 
Get-rich-quick   schemes,    441 
Ginger  bread,   389 
Glucose,  40 
Gluten.   54.    57,    170 
Government  Bulletins,   free.   164,  322, 

o63 

Gowns,   short,   612 
Grains,    composition  of,   274 
Grape,  sugar,  41 
Graphite,  32 
Grease  spots,   87 
Griddle   cakes.    388 
Groceries,   brand  of,    562 
dry,    561 


Haddock.   553 
Hair,    care   of.    624 

washing.    625 
Hard  coal.    18<) 

water,    15,   74,   142,    173 


INDEX 


Hard  water,  cooking  with,   75 

water,  with  soap,  75 
Hash.   307,   398 
Hay  box,   330 

use  of,  333 
Health,  value  of,  474 
Heat,   20 
Heat,    effect   on   foods.    360 

effect  of,  on  albumin.    360 

effect  of,  on  baking    powder,    370 

effect  of,  on  celluloso.    360 

effect  of,  on  fats,     370 

effect  of,  on  food    materials,    360 

effect  of,  on  gelatine.    370 

effect  of,  on  sugar,   370 

effect  of,  on  starch.  360 

latent.   20,    152.    166 

transmission  of,    190 
Help,   by   the  hour.    490.   586 
Hemorrhage   (bleeding),  704 

in   child   birth,   684 

from  lungs,  704 

signs  of,   673 
High   cost   of  food,    432 
High   temperature,   635 
Higher  life,   437 

allowance   for,  437 
Hindquarter  of  beef.   537 
Home,   advantages  of  owning,   422 

expenditures,    40!),   441 

sanctity  of.   495 

soap   making.    147 
Home   maker,    education   of,   406 
Home   making,    business   side   of,    404 

right   spirit  in,   408 
Hot   pack.   629 
Hour  work,   49O,  586 
Household   accounts,   432,    571 

chemicals.   131 

aid   society,   498 

Household  expenses,   classification  of, 
458 

manager,   expert.  563 
Housekeeper's    laboratory.    129 

library,  162 
Housekeeping,   a   profession.   405 

on   business-like   basis.   407 
Housewife,    tests   of   good.    426 
Housework  helper,   wages  of,  428 
Hydro-carbons,    33,    144 
Hydrogen,  17 

peroxide.   98 
Hydraulic  cement.   12O 
Hypodermic    injections,    645 


Ice,  204 

caps,    653 

cream,   382 

cream  freezer,   2O7 
Ideals,    realizing.   438 
Ignorance  of  servants.   485 
Immigrants'   help.    480 
Impurities   in    water,    141 


Income,   divisions  of.  415,  511 

regular.   415 

Incubation,   period  of.   594 
Indorsement   of   checks,   462 
Industrial   changes,   480 
Infectious   diseases,    658 
Ingrain    carpet,    grades    of,    522 
Inhalations,    645 

steam,    598 

Initiative    in    the    home,    405 
Injections,    642 

hypodermic,    645 
Injuries,    699 
Ink.    91 

colored.    92 

indelible,    90 

on    carpets,    92 

removal    of,    91 
Insurance,     lif*-,    440 
Intentions,    good.    412 
Intestinal  obstructions.  597 
Investments,    divisions    for    wise,    439 
Iron   cooking   utensils,    513 
Iron   rust,    removing,   92,    174 
Isolation.    661 

time   of,    595 


.Tavelle   water.   96 
Jellies,    211,    383 
Judging    meat,    249 

poultry.    259 
Junket,    220,    382 


Keeping   fire,   183 

Kensington   squares,    cost   of,    524 

Kerosene,    34,    329 

flash    point   of.    36,    169 

lamps,   112.    329 

stoves,    187 

use   in   cleaning.   99,   134 

washing   with.    145 
Kidneys,    beef,    543 
Kindling   fires,    183 

point,  28 
Kisses,  395 
Kitchen  cabinet,  514 

chairs,    515 

floor  covering.   512 

furnishings,    337,    512 

scales,    311 

stove,    512 

tables.    515 

utensils,  507 
Kneading.  288 
Kromeskies,  308 


Labor,    cost    of.    318 
division   of.    473 
organization    of.    473 

Laboratory,    acids    for,    132 
housekeeper's,    129 


Note. — For  page  numbers,  sec  foot  of  pages. 


720 


INDEX 


Lactose,    40 
Lamb.    250,    548 

chops,   549 
Lamps,    112 

kerosene,    112 

safety.    112 
Lard,    369 

Latent  heat,   20.   152,    166 
Laundry,    78,    141 

chemistry    of,    78 

equipment   cost    of,    510 

establishment  of,  495 

work,    141,    174,    570 
Laws    of    expenditure,     Dr.     Engel's, 

419 

Lead  pipes,    15 
Leaven,   47 

Leaving  materials,   373,    374 
Leclance    cell,    122 
Ledger,    use    of,    448 
Left-overs,    use   of,    318,    351 
Legitimate  bargains,    499 
Legumes,    267 
Legumin,   54 
Lemon  Ice,   382 
Levulose,    41 
Life  insurance,  440 
Life,   standards   of,   410 
Lifting   patient,    612,    615,    624 
Lighting.    108 

methods   of,    282 

of  sick-room,  602 
Lightning  cake,  389 
Lime,  118 

quick.    119 

slaked,   119 

soap,   75 

test.    136 

water,   119 
Linen,  bed,   518 

fibres,    structure  of,    78 

table,    516 

Litmus  for  testing,  68 
Liver,   beef,   542 
Living,   style  of.    413 
Location  of  cuts  of  beef,    533 


Maltose,   41 

Marketing,   527 

Match,   chemistry  of,   29 

Materials    of    kitchen    utensils,    512 

Matter,    conservation   of,    31 

Mattresses,    601 

changing,    617 

protecting,    608 
Mayonnaise   dressing,   400 
Meals,   serving,   621 
Measles,    595 

German,   595 
Measures,    367 
Measuring    glasses,    641 
Meats,    57.   247,   256,    394 

boiled,    393 


Meats,  braised,  252 

choice   of,    247 

cost  of,    248 

effect  of  temperature  on,  57,  369 

judging,    249 

left-overs,    309 

loaf,    395 

preparation   of,    251 

stew.   394 

supply  of,  528 

timbals,    395 

toughness  of,    249 
Medicines,  giving  of,  640 
Meningitis,    598 
Menu   making,    346,   358,    575 
Menus  for  special  occasions,   358 

planning.    321 
Mercerization,    80 
Meringues.    385 
Mildew.    89 
Milk.    218,    559 

composition   of,    219 

concentrated,    223 

cooking  in,   222 

skimmed,    224 

sour,    220 

sugar,    41 

supply,   source  of,    560 

use   of,    218 
Mineral    matter,    60 

water,    193 
Molasses,   40 

with   soda,    292 
Molecules,    127,    129 
Money,    use   of,    404 
Monthly   budgets,    572 
Mortar,    120 

Mother,    province   of,    593 
Mousse,    or   Par  fa  it.    382 
Mouth,   care  of,   625 

washes,   626 
Muffins,    387 
Mumps,   594 

Muscle    arrangement    of    beef,    531 
Mushes,    275 

corn  meal,   396 
Mustard  plasters,   652 
Mutton,    250.    548 

cuts    of,    549 


Napkins,    521 
Natural   gas,    115 
Neck,  use  of,  535 
Needs  vs.   wants,   411 
Neutralizing   acidity   of    milk,    221 
Night   gown,    changing,   610 
Night   nursing,    606 
Nitric   acid    poisoning,    707 
Nitrogen,    24 

for   plants,    126 

properties   of,    24 

use   of,    53 


Note. — For  page  numbers,  see  foot  of  pages. 


INDEX 


Nitrogenous  foods,  53 

foods,   cooking  of,   54 
Noodles,    244 

Norwegian   cooking   box,    189,    330 
Nose  bleed,   705 

foreign  bodies   in.   706 
Nurse,    care   of,   606 

clothing  of,   606 

duties  of,   593 

night,  .606 

Nursing    the   baby,    686 
Nuts,   369 

as    food,    210 


Objections    to    domestic    service,    484 

Obstetrics,  674 

Oil   stoves,    35,    329 

Oils,   69 

Olive  oil,   369 

Omelets,    384 

Operating  room,   669 

expenses,   426 

table,    669 
Operations  at  home,  667 

precautions    when    over.    672 

preparation    for,    668 
Opium   poisoning,    708 
Ordering  by  telephone,  351 

time   for,    351.    528 
Order   in   housework,   473 
Organizations    of    household    labor, 

473 

Oriental  rugs,    524 
Oven,    temperature   of,   303,    372 

thermometer,    302 
Ovens,    first,    178 
Oxalic   acid  poisoning.   707 
Oxide   of   calcium,    118 
Oxides,    19 
Oxygen  in  air,   18,  167 


Paint,   removal  of,   90 
Paraffin,    34 

in   washing,   144 
Parfait,    382 
Parsnips,    369 

Pasteurization    of   milk,    221 
Pastry,    297,    390 
Patient,   amusing,   623 

care  of,    605 

lifting,    612,    624 
Peas,    268,    369 
Peat,   23 
Peptones,    59 
Perishable    supplies,     503 
Peroxide    of   hydrogen,    98 
Personal   expenses,    classification,    458 

freedom   of  maid,   489 
Petroleum,   34 
Phosphates,    36 
Pies,    297 


Pillows,    620 

Pills,    642 

Plain  cakes,   299,   389 

Planning    meals,    319 

menus,    331 

work,   476 
Plant   fertilizers,    125 

foods,  124 
Plants,  124 

house,  124 
Plaster,  120 
Pneumonia,  597 

symptoms    of,    597 
Poached   eggs,    338 
Poisoning,    blood,    703,    704 
Poisons,   707 
Popovers,    245 
Pork,     550 
Potash,    70 

caustic,  70 
Potatoes,  269,  369,  398 

baked,   397 

boiled.    269,    397 

croquettes,    398 

loss  in   preparing,   397 

mashed,    397 

riced.    397 

stuffed,    on   half   shell,    398 

with    meat,    270 
Poultices,    651 

applying,    651 

linseed,    651 

mustard,    652 

starch,  652 
Poultry,  259 

care   in   selecting.    551 

methods   of    plucking,    552 

tests    for,    552 
Powders,    giving,   642 
Prepared    food,   318 
Preserve  jars,   213 
Preserving  eggs,   239 

food,    208 

in   sugar,   212 
Pressure   of   air.   23,    168 

relieving,   620 

Prevention  of  bed  sores,  617 
Principle  of  contrast,  306 
Production,    definition   of.    401 
Profession   of   house  keeping.   405 
Program    for    class    study,    16r>,    350, 

360,    566 

Promotion    for   helper.    483 
Proportions,   table   of,   386,    390 
Proteids.   54 

digestion  of,   59 
Proteins,   216,   369 
Ptyalin,    44 
Pudding,    cottage,    301 

fruit,    380 

snow,    380 

Puffs,    pastry,   296,    385 
Pulse,    636 

counting  .the,    637 


Note. — For  page  numbers,  see  foot  of  pages. 


731 


10 


INDEX 


Pulses   or  legumes,    267 
Pump,    23 

force,  24 

suction,    25 

Q 

Quarantine,  664 
Quick  lime,  119 
Questions  (see  "test") 


Ragouts  or  stews,   307 

Railroad    securities,    440 

Rain   water.    121 

Rancid    butter,    229 

Ranges,    181 

Rarebit,    Welsh,    378 

Ration.    317 

Raw   foods,    composition   of,   369 

Real    estate    loans,    441 

Receipts,    376 

Recipes,    691 

Records,   keeping.   638 

Refrigerator.    205 

care  of.  206 
Refuse,    317 
Regular  income,   415 
Relapse,    cause   of,    621 
Remnants,    value  of,    504 
Rent,    421 
Rental.   425 

Reorganization   of   the   home.    490 
Respiration,    or   breathing,    638 
artificial,  702 
chart,   638 
Rib   roasts,    536 
Ribs  of  beef,   535 

use  of,  535 
Rice,   276,   396 

croquettes,    396 
Rinsing   clothes,    81 
Rissoles,   308 
Roasts,    small,   394,  540 
Roasting,    190,    251,    368 
Rochelle    salt.    107 
Rolls,   289,   391 
Rosin  soap,   147 
Round,   use  of,  539 
Routine,    476 
Rubber  air  cushion,  621 

sheet.  608 
Rugs,    523 

kinds   of,   518 
Pump,    use   of.   539 
Rust,    iron,    92,    174 


Safe  interest,  441 
Safety  lamps,  112 
Salads.  274.  308 

French   dressing    for,    400 
Saleratus,   105 


Salmis   or   stews,    307 
Salt,    69,  •  172 
common,    60 
Rochelle,    107 
Salt  meats,   252 

to   develop   flavor,    312 
Saturated    solution,    13 
Sauce,    brown,    227,    378 
white,    226,    377 
white   fish.    215 
Sausages,    551 
Sauteing,   368 
Saving,    percentage    in,    562 

ways  of.   439 
Scalds,   700 
Scales,    kitchen,    311 
Scallops,    308 
Scarlet   fever,   596 
Schedule  of  work,   591 
Scultelus    bandages,    714 
Seasons,   food  varied  with,   353 
Securities,    railroad,    440 
Selecting  beef,   530 
Self   control,    necessity    for,    475 
Servant    problem.    584 
Servant,   ignorance  of.   485 

irresponsibility   of.   485 
Service,    domestic,    479,    583 
Serving.    357 

dainty,   621.   690 
Shank,   use  of,   540 
Shaping   dough,    2S9 
Sheet,    changing,    610 
draw,   607 
rubber.    608 
size  of,   518 

Sheeting,    kinds   of,    518 
Sherbet,  382 
Shin.   the.   537 
Shock,   701 
Shortcake,    387 
Shortening,   296,   374 
Short    process   bread,    286 
•Sick    room,    601 
airing.    604 
care  of,    601 
choice    of.    601 
don'ts,    606 
dusting,    603 
floor   of,    603 
furnishing  of,   601 
lighting   of.    602 
methods,    633 
sweeping.    603 
temperature  of,   605 
ventilation  of.   699 
Silence   cloth,    521 
Silver   polish.    101,    137 

sulphide,   100 

Sinapisms,    mustard    plaster,    652 
Sirloin,    location    of,    538 
Skin,    artificial,    619 

care  of.   619 
Slings,   705 


Note. — For  page  numbers,  see  foot  of  pages. 


732 


INDEX 


11 


Smallpox,    595 
Small   wastes,   429 
Smoke.    34 

asphyxiation,  703 

nature    of,     110 
Smyrna    rugs.    524 
Soaking   clothes,   80 
Soap.   69,    172 

action   of,    71 

composition   of,    71 

kinds  of,  72 

lime,   75 

making.    146 

rosin.    147 

solution.   83 

with   hard   water,   75 
Soda.    105 

ash.   73 

caustic.   70 

cooking.    1<»5 

washing.    73 

with  acids.    290 

with  cream   o'   tartar,    291 

with  molasses.    292 

with  sour    milk,    292 
Soft   coal,   181 
Softening   water.   74,    143 
Solubility  of   water,   13 
Solution   saturated,    13 
Solvents,    134 
Souffles,   308,    385 
rfoup,    58,    307 

names   of.    250 

stock.    256.    376 

vegetable.    272 
Sour  milk   with   soda,   292 
Specialty  stores.   505 
Spices.    313 

Snonge   cake.    242.    299,   385 
Spongy    mixtures,    240 
Spontaneous    combustion,    160 
Sprains,  705 
Stains.   82 

bluing,    88 

coffee,    89 

fruit,    89 

removal  of.   87 

vaseline,    89 

Stale  bread,   use  of,   391 
Standards,    differing,    412 

of  life.    41O 

of  quality   of   goods.    403 

of  work,    established,    487,    491 
Starch.    41,    137 

changed   to   sugar,    43 

conversion    of.    43 

cooking   of.    45.    309 

digestion   of.   43,   45 

tests   for.    137 

source   of,   42 

uncooked,  80 

§  arching    clothes,    86 
eaks,    selection   of,    898,   541 
earn  cooker,  188,  203 


Steaming,    368 
Sterilized  water,   071 
Sterilising   dressings,    670 

the  hands,  672 
Stewing.  200,  368 
Stews,  307,  394 

cut    for,    542 

Sticking  piece,  location  of,  536 
Still,    12 
Storage,    500,    561 

cold.   204 

requirements.    502 
Stoves,   ancient,   177 

gas.    185 

gasoline,    187 

kerosene,    187 

modern,   181 

Stubs   of   check   book,    464 
Stuffing.    262 
Style  of  living,  413 
Sucrose,   40 
Sugar.   40 

as   flavoring,    303 

brown,    40 

cane.  40 

digestion    of,    43 

fruit,    41 

grape,    41 

maple,    40 

milk.   41 

starch,   41 
Sulphur  candle,  97 

dioxide.    96 

Sulphurous    acid   gas,   133 
Supper.   321 
Supplies,    buying,    499 

lists  of.   506 

perishable.    503 
Suppositories,    644 
Surgical    operations.    667 
Sweeping.    603 
Sweetbreads,    544 
Symptoms    of    diseases.    594 
Syncope   or   fainting,    700 
Syrup.    399 

caramel.   398 
System  of  accounts,   444 

of  work,   590 

value   of,    319 


Table,    bedside,    603 
Table   linen,    516 

examples   of,    521 

grades   of.    519 

kinds   of,    520 

price  of,   521 

size   of.    521 
Table  of  common   substances,   130 

of  contagious    diseases,    594 

of  elements.    128 

of  cuts   of   beef,    545 

of  proportions,    doughs,    3,8Q,    3QO 

of  temperatures,    3J8 


—For  page  numbers,  see  foot  of 


733 


12 


INDEX 


Table   service,    357 

time   of   cooking,    372 
Tables,    kitchen,    515 
Tannic   acid,    55 
Tapestry   carpets,    522 
Tarnish,    100 
Tea,  making,  202.  376 
Teeth,    care   for,    625 
Telephone,   use  for  buying,    527 
Temperature,    635 

for   cooking   eggs,    237 

high,    635 

in   cooking.   199,    370,    371,    372 

normal.  635 

of  boiling   point,   20 

of  oven,    303 
'     of  sick   room,    605 

records.   636 

sub-normal,    635 

taking,   the.   634 

testing    fat,    254 

vital.   38 
Tenderloin,   538 
Test  questions.  64.  103.  231.  278.  323 

469.    525.    564,    655,    716 
Tests,   135 

for    poultry.    552 

sample.   138 
Testing   by   comparison.    131 

colors.    129 
Theoretical   division   of   income,    415 

Thermometer,    20 

bath,    629 

clinical,    633 

oven,      302 

use  of.   154 
Thickening,    methods    of,    377 

materials.   373 
Timbales.   244 
Time  of  cooking,  370 
Time  table  for  cooking,   372 
Tongue,    beef,    543 
Tough    meat.    251 

Tourniquet   (to  stop  bleeding),   704 
Transmission   of  heat.    190 

Tuberculosis,   659 
Turning    patient.    611 
Turnips,     composition    of,     369 
Typhoid  fever,   597 


Use  of  money,  404 

Utensils,   adaptability  of,   311 

aluminum.    513 

buying,   504 

choice  of,    198 

estimate  of  kitchen,   506 

for   canning,   213 

Iron.   515 

kitchen,   507 

materials  for  kitchen,   512 


Note.— For  page  numbers,  see  foot  of  pages. 


Value    of    classification,    413 

of   individual    home,   592 
Values,    estimate    of,    406 

real,   416 

Vapor,    water,    25 
Variety   in   foods,    305 
Varnish    stains,    90 
Vaselene,   34 
Vaseline,    34 

Stains.    89 
Veal   bob,   546 

cuts   of,    547 

season   of,   546 
Vegetable   left-overs,    309 

soups,    272 
Vegetables,    263.    396 

classification    of.    265 

combinations    of,    270 

composition    of,    263 

cooking.    270 

creamed.    273 

digestibility   of,    268,    272 

dried,    265 

how    to   cook,    377 

mashed,    273 

preparation   of,   271 

prices  of.  557 

quantity  for  serving,    558 

season  of,   556 

selecting,    558 

strongly   flavored,    265 

wilted,    267 

young.   267 
Ventilation,   23,   604 

of    sleeping    rooms,    26 

window,    604 
Vital    temperature,    38 
Voltaic    cell.    121 
Vouchers,    466 

W 

Wadding    ring,    620 

Waffles,    388 

Wage   of   helper,    428 

Wages  of  domestic  helper.   483 

Washing    colored    goods,    82 

powders.    137,    173 

soda,    73 

soda,   use  of,    149 

woolens,    82 
Waste,    317 

of   money    in    food,    431 

sources    of,    432 
Wastes,    small,    429 
Water.    8.    22.    141.    165 

as    temperature    regulator,    21 

boiling    point    of,    19 

bread.    49 

composition   of,    16 

distilled.    10 

effect  of  freezing,    21 

effect  of  heating,     19 


714 


INDEX 


13 


Water,  effect  on  lead,  16 
effect  on  metaTS,   14 
filtered,    15 
flavor  of,   194 
a as     114,    159 
hard,    15,   74,  .142,    173 
heat,    absorption    of,    21 
impurities    in,    141 
impurities  in,   142 
lime,    119 

manufacturing,    167 
mineral,   193 
natural,    10 

of    crystallization,    10.    16o 
permanent  hardness,    74 

softening,   36,    73,   143 

solubility   of,    13 
Wealth  expander,    office  of.   < 
Weights   and   measures,    367 
Weight  of  beef,    534 


Welsh  rarebit,   378 

Wheat  flour,   composition  or,   .<:»-*,  . 

White   sauce,    226,    228,    373,    377 

Whitewash,   121 

Whiting,    101  _A. 

Windpipe,    foreign   bodies  in,    706 

Wood  as  fuel,   179,  326 

Wooden  ware,   513 

Wool  fibres,   structures  of,   78 

Work  by  hour,   429,   491,    586 

schedule   of,   491 

standards    of,    427 
Worry,    harm   of,    427 
Wounds,  703 


Yeast,    47,    282 
amount   of,   286 
cakes,   283        • 
doughs,    table  of,    390 


Note.— For  page  numbers,  see  foot  of  pages. 


735 


COMPLETE  COURSE  IN  HOME  ECONOMICS 

This  course  covers,  systematically,  in  an  interesting  and  practical  way,  the  new 
"Profession  of  Home- making"  and  "Art  of  Right  Living."  It  is  divided  into  forty 
lesson  pamphlets  of  fifty  to  one  hundred  pages  each. 

REGULAR  ORDER  IN  WHICH  THE  LESSONS  ARE  TAKEN 

FOOD  SUBJECTS 
(1)   Chemistry  of  the  Household 

Parts  I,  II,  III. 
(3)  Principles  of  Cookery 

Parts  I,  II,  III,  IV. 
(5)  Food  and  Dietetics 

Parts  I,  II,  III,  IV. 
(7)  Household  Management 

Parts  I,  II,  III,  IV. 

HOUSEHOLD  ART 
(9)  The  House — Its   Plan,  Deco- 
ration and  Care,  I,  II,  III. 
(1O)  Textiles  and  Clothing 
Parts  I,  II,  III. 

PARTIAL  LIST 
ISABEL  BEVIER,  Ph.  M. 

Professor    of    Household    Science, 

University    of    Illinois 
S.  MARIA  ELLIOTT 

Instructor    in    Home    Economics, 

Simmons  College,  Boston 
BERTHA  M.  TERRILL,  A.  M. 

Professor    of     Home    Economics, 

University  of  Vermont 
KATE  HEINZ  WATSON 

Formerly   Instructor  Lewis  Insti- 
tute, Chicago 
MARGARET  E.  DODD,  S.  B. 

Graduate  Mass.  Inst.  of  Technology 
ANNA  BARROWS 

Teacher     of     Cookery,     Columbia 

University;    Director    Chautauqua 

School  of  Cookery 


HEALTH  SUBJECTS 
(2)   Household  Bacteriology 

Parts  I,  II,  III. 
(4)  Household  Hygiene 

Parts  I,  II,  III. 
(6)   Personal  Hygiene 

Parts  I,  II,  III,  IV. 
(8)  Home  Care  of  the  Sick 

Parts  I,  II,  III. 

CHILDREN 

(11)  Care  of  Children 

Parts  I.  II,  III. 

(12)  Study  of  Child  Life 

Parts  I,  II,  III. 

OF  INSTRUCTORS 

ALFRED  C.  COTTON,  A.  M.,  M 
Professor     Diseases    of    Childiv 
Rush  Medical  College,  Univer~; 
of  Chicago 

ALICE  PELOUBET  NORTON,* 
Assistant  Professor  of  Homr 
nomics,   University   of  Chica- 

MARION  FOSTER  WASHBUK 
Editor  of  "The  Mothers'  Magaz 

AMY  ELIZABETH  POPE 
Instructor    in     Nursing,     Pre 
terian  Hospital,  N.  Y.  City 

CHARLOTTE  M.  GIBBS,  A.  B. 
Director  of  Household  Art,   T 
versity  of  Illinois 

MAURICE  LE  BOSQUET,  S.  B 
Director  American  School  of  H 
Economics,  Chicago 


BOARD  OF 

MRS.  A.  COURTENAY  NEVILLE 
President  of  the  Board;  First  Chair- 
man Home  Economics  Committee, 
G.  F.  W.  C. 

MRS.  ELLEN  M.  HENROTIN 

Organizer  and  Honorary  President 
General  Federation  Women's  Clubs 

MRS.  FREDERIC  W.  SCHOFF 
President    National    Congress    of 
Mothers 

MRS.  LINDA  HULL  LARNED 
Past  President  National  Household 
Economics  Association 

Miss  ALICE  RAVENHILL 

Commissioner  of  the  British  Gov- 
ernment on  Domestic  Science  in 
the  United  States 


TRUSTEES 

MRS.  MARY  HINMAN  ABEL 
Editor    "Journal    of    Home    F' 
nomics"  ;  Author  U.S.  Governn: 
Bulletins 

Miss  MARIA  PARLOA 

Founder  of  the  Original  Cook. 
School  in  Boston;  Author,  etc. 

MRS.  J.  A.  KIMBERLY 

Vice-President  of  National  H- 
hold  Economics  Association 

MRS.  JOHN  HOODLESS 

Government     Supt.    of    Dom* 
Science  of  the  Province  of  On' 

MRS.  WALTER  McNAB  MF-LE 
Chairman  of  the  Food-Saniti 
Committee,  G.  F.  W.  C. 


736 


i 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN     INITIAL     FINE     OF     25     CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


^1 


• 

(WAR 

§1 


OCT  Id  J332 
COT  29  1934 


1938 


MAR  29 1941 M 

JAN  6  1943 

1  Hov'49CS 


TlUG  1  6 


LD  21-20m-6, 


/ 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


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